Encyclopedia of plastics testing - Recent changes [en]

Crack Resistance Curve – Examples

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	\|Raab, M., Kotek, J., Baldrian, J., Grellmann, W.: Übermolekulare Struktur und mechanische Eigenschaften von isotaktischem Polypropylen. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Deformation und Bruchverhalten von Kunststoffen. Springer Berlin Heidelberg (1998) (ISBN 3-540-63671-4; e-Book: ISBN 978-3-642-58766-5; see [[AMK-Library under A 6]])		\|Raab, M., Kotek, J., Baldrian, J., Grellmann, W.: Übermolekulare Struktur und mechanische Eigenschaften von isotaktischem Polypropylen. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Deformation und Bruchverhalten von Kunststoffen. Springer Berlin Heidelberg (1998) (ISBN 3-540-63671-4; e-Book: ISBN 978-3-642-58766-5; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 6)
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File:Cover Polymer-Wiki (engl.) Wiki16.jpg

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Lexicon Polymer Testing & Diagnostics

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 12:32:31 GMT

Created page with "<big>Informations to Lexikon Polymer Testing & Diagnostics</big> <templatestyles src="Hauptseite/styles.css" />__NOTOC__ <div id="hauptseite"> <div id="spalten"> <div id="l" style="float:left; margin-right: 3em;"> <div id="PSM_Deckblatt>300px Cover page for the Lexicon Polymer Testing & Diagnostics Version 16.0</div> </div> <div id="r" style="float:left;"> '''Editors''' *Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Prof. Dr. rer...."

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<big>Informations to Lexikon Polymer Testing & Diagnostics</big>

<templatestyles src="Hauptseite/styles.css" />__NOTOC__

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<div id="PSM_Deckblatt>[[File:Cover_Polymer-Wiki_(engl.)_Wiki16.jpg|300px]] Cover page for the Lexicon Polymer Testing & Diagnostics Version 16.0</div>
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'''Editors'''

*[[Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Prof. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Wolfgang Grellmann]] 
*[[Bierögel, Christian|Prof. Dr.-Ing. Christian Bierögel]] 
*[[Reincke, Katrin|Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Katrin Reincke]] 

'''Authors and coworkers'''

*Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ines Kotter 
*Dr.-Ing. Ralf Lach 
*Dipl.-Ing. Andreas Oluschinski 
*Dr.-Ing. Katja Oßwald 
*Dr.-Ing. Marcus Schoßig 
*Dipl.-Phys. Christian Sirch 
</div>
</div>

==Editorial board==

Please direct any enquiries regarding articles in this online encyclopaedia to the scientific editorial board.

*Lach, Ralf Dr.-Ing. (Vors.) [mailto:ralf.lach@psm-merseburg.de ralf.lach@psm-merseburg.de] 
*Oluschinski, Andreas Dipl.-Ing. [mailto:andreas.oluschinski@psm-merseburg.de andreas.oluschinski@psm-merseburg.de] 
*Sirch, Christian Dipl.-Phys. [mailto:christian.sirch@psm-merseburg.de christian.sirch@psm-merseburg.de] 

==Foreword==

The scientific basis for the Wiki Lexicon of Polymer Testing & Diagnostics is provided by the textbooks and specialist books published by the Merseburg School (see also [[AMK-Library]]) on polymer testing and diagnostics as well as on the technical fracture mechanics of plastics and composite materials with a polymer matrix. These include, among others:
 
'''Polymer Testing'''
 
[[Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Wolfgang Grellmann]] and [[Seidler,_Sabine|Sabine Seidler]] (Eds.) 
1st Edition 2007 
Carl Hanser, Munich, Vienna 
ISBN 978-1-56990-410-7 
ISBN 978-3-446-40900-2 
 
2nd Edition 2013 
Carl Hanser, Munich 
ISBN 978-1-56990-548-7 
 
3rd Edition 2022 
Carl Hanser, Munich 
ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8 
 
With the collaboration of 
[[Altstädt, Volker|Volker Altstädt]], Monika Bauer, [[Bierögel, Christian|Christian Bierögel]], Gert Busse, Klaus Friedrich, Henrick Höninger, Thomas Lüpke, Bernd Michel, [[Radusch, Hans-Joachim|Hans-Joachim Radusch]], Falko Ramsteiner, Andreas Schönhals, Jörg Trempler

Other reference books published by Springer-Verlag on the deformation and fracture behaviour of plastics are:
{|
|-valign="top"
|1.
|[[Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler,_Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): '''Deformation und Bruchverhalten von Kunststoffen'''. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (1998), (ISBN 3-540-63671-4; e-Book: ISBN 978-3-642-58766-5; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 6)
|-valign="top"
|2.
|Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): '''Deformation and Fracture Behaviour of Polymers'''. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (2001) (ISBN 978-3540412472; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 7)
|-valign="top"
|3.
|Grellmann, W., [[Reincke,_Katrin|Reincke, K.]]: '''Technical Material Diagnostics – Fracture Mechanics of Filled Elastomer Blends'''. In: Grellmann, W., Heinrich, G., Kaliske, M., Klüppel, M., Schneider, K., Vilgis, T. (Eds.): Fracture Mechanics and Statistical Mechanics of Reinforced Elastomeric Blends. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (2013), (ISBN 978-3-642-37909-3; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 14)
|-valign="top"
|4.
|Grellmann, W., Seidler, S.: '''Mechanical and Thermomechanical Properties of Polymers'''. Landolt-Börnstein. Volume VIII/6A3, Springer, Berlin (2014), (ISBN 978-3-642-55165-9; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 16)
|-valign="top"
|5.
|Grellmann, W., Langer, B. (Eds.): '''Deformation and Fracture Behavior of Polymer Materials'''. Springer Series in Materials Science 247, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (2017), (ISBN 978-3-319-41877-3; e-Book: ISBN 978-3-319-41879-7; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 19)
|}

'''Co-authors of the lexicon'''

[[File:FELMI_ZFE.PNG| 100px |thumb |[http://www.felmi-zfe.tugraz.at/ FELMI-ZFE]]]

1. Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Centre of Engineer Sciences, professorship Material Diagnostic/Material Testing (Chair '''[[Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Prof. em. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Wolfgang Grellmann]]''') and the University of Technology Graz, Institute of Electron-Microscopy and Nanoanalytics (FELMI) together with the Centre of Electron-Microscopy (ZFE) Graz (director '''Univ.-Prof. Dr. Gerald Kothleitner''', see: [http://www.felmi-zfe.at www.felmi-zfe.at]) with whom we have a long-standing collaboration in the field of [[Microscopic Structure|morphology]] and [[Micromechanics & Nanomechanics|micromechanics]] of plastics. 
The following terms were edited by '''Dr. Armin Zankel''', FELMI-ZFE Graz:
<ul>
<li>[[Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX)]]</li>
<li>[[In-situ ultramicrotomy]]</li>
<li>[[Microtomy]]</li>
<li>[[Scanning Electron Microscopy]] (SEM)</li>
<li>[[Environmental-SEM (ESEM)]]</li></ul>

2. The Editors of the "Lexicon Polymer Testing & Diagnostics" have asked '''[[Michler,_Goerg_Hannes|Prof. em. Dr. rer. nat. habil. Goerg H. Michler]]''', Martin-Luther-Universiy Halle-Wittenberg, Institute for Physics, professurship "General Material Science", because of his professional competence in the field of morphology and micro-mechanics of polymers, to explain some terms. 
Following his retirement, Prof. Dr. Michler is now Honorary Chairman in [http://www.ipw-merseburg.de Institut für Polymerwerkstoffe e.V.], Associated institute at the University of applied Science Merseburg and also chairmen of the foundation [http://bethge-stiftung.de Heinz-Bethge-Stiftung] in Halle.

The following terms were edited from Prof. Dr. Michler:
* [[Craze-Types]]
* [[Electron Microscopy]]
* [[Polymers & Structure]]
* [[Micromechanics & Nanomechanics]]
* [[Transmission Electron Microscopy]]
* [[In-situ Ultramicrotomy]]
* [[Material Science & Plastics]]

3. The following terms were edited from '''[[Radusch,_Hans-Joachim|Prof. em. Dr.-Ing. habil. Hans-Joachim Radusch]]''', Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Cetre for Engineering Science, Chair "Kunststofftechnik":

* [[Elongational Viscosity]]
* [[Capillary Rheometer]]
* [[Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension]]
* [[Rheometry|Rheometry/Viscosimetry]]
* [[Pourability]]
* [[Rotational Rheometer]]
* [[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]]
* [[Melt Volume-Flow Rate]]
* [[Bulk Density]]
* [[Repose Angle]]
* [[Materials Science]]
* [[Materials Technology & Materials Science]]
* [[Materials Science & University Education in Merseburg-Halle|Materials Science & University Education in Merseburg/Halle]]

4. The following terms were edited from '''Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Michael Nase''', University of Applied Science, Hof, [https://www.ibp-hof.de/ Institute for Bio-Polymer Science], Professorship for Polymer Technology:
* [[Adhesive Energy Release Rate]]
* [[Peel Properties of Peel Systems]]
* [[Peeling Process]]
* [[Peel Behaviour – Modelling]]

5. The following terms were edited from '''Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stephan Marzi''', [https://www.thm.de/site/en/ Technical University Mittelhessen], [https://www.thm.de/me/ Department of Mechanical Engineering and Energy Technology], Gießen:
* [[Cohesive Zone Models]]
* [[ODCB or MC-DCB-Specimens]]
* [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]]

6. There is a long-standing scientific collaboration between Martin [https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en Luther University Halle-Wittenberg] and [https://www.tuwien.at/en/ Vienna University of Technology], which has resulted in numerous specialist books and publications in the fields of [[Polymer Testing|polymer testing]], [[Polymer Diagnostic|polymer diagnostics]] and technical [[Fracture Mechanics|fracture mechanics]] of [[Polymer|polymer]] and [[Composite Materials Testing|composite materials]]. 
The authors of this lexicon thank to Frau '''Prof. Dr. Vasiliki-Maria Archodoulaki''' and '''Dr. Lisa Schardt''', Vienna University of Technology, [https://tiss.tuwien.ac.at/adressbuch/adressbuch/orgeinheit/1673?locale=en Institute for Materials Science and Materials Technology], FG Structural Polymers, for the guest article:
* [[Microplastic & Nanoplastic]]
 
{{Kasten|
'''For literary citations in the lexicon, please use:''' 
Grellmann, W., Bierögel , C. (&dagger;), Reincke, K. (Eds.) Wiki "'''Lexicon Polymer Testing & Diagnostics'''" 2026, Version 16, http://wiki.polymerservice-merseburg.de
}}

Wolfgang Grellmann, Merseburg and Halle

Foreword last modified on January, the 27th, 2026

</div>

Main Page

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	[[file:Deckblatt_Kunststoffpruefung.jpg]]<br>About the [[Lexicon]]		[[file:Deckblatt_Kunststoffpruefung.jpg]]<br>About the [[Lexicon Polymer Testing & Diagnostics]]
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AMK-Library

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Created page with "You can find a current list of all works of the AMK-Library here: *[http://amk-merseburg.de/buechersammlung/ www.amk-merseburg.de]"

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You can find a current list of all works of the AMK-Library here:

*[http://amk-merseburg.de/buechersammlung/ www.amk-merseburg.de]

File:S E Pruefkoepfe-3.JPG

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File:Griffith.jpg

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File:FELMI ZFE.PNG

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Permeation

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	<span style="font-size:1.2em;font-weight:bold;">Permeation</span>		<span style="font-size:1.2em;font-weight:bold;">Permeation</span>

Dispersion

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	<span style="font-size:1.2em;font-weight:bold;">Dispersion</span>		<span style="font-size:1.2em;font-weight:bold;">Dispersion</span>

Ball Indentation Hardness

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	<span style="font-size:1.2em;font-weight:bold;">Ball indentation hardness</span>		<span style="font-size:1.2em;font-weight:bold;">Ball indentation hardness</span>

Weld Line

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	*[[Sink Mark\|Sink mark]]		*[[Sink Mark\|Sink mark]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	{\|		{\|
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[1]		\|[1]
	\|Myer, E.: Plastic Failure Guide – Cause and Prevention. Carl Hanser, Munich Vienna (1996); (ISBN 978-3-446-15715-6; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung \|~~ AMK-Library]] under D 1)		\|Myer, E.: Plastic Failure Guide – Cause and Prevention. Carl Hanser, Munich Vienna (1996); (ISBN 978-3-446-15715-6; see [[AMK-Library]] under D 1)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[2]		\|[2]
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	\|[3]		\|[3]
	\|Kurr, F.: Praxishandbuch der Qualitäts- und Schadensanalyse für Kunststoffe. Carl Hanser Munich (2014) (ISBN 978-3-446-43775-3; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung \|~~ AMK-Library]] under D 6-2)		\|Kurr, F.: Praxishandbuch der Qualitäts- und Schadensanalyse für Kunststoffe. Carl Hanser Munich (2014) (ISBN 978-3-446-43775-3; see [[AMK-Library]] under D 6-2)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[4]		\|[4]

Water Absorption

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	* [[Moulding Compound Test\|Moulding compound test]]		* [[Moulding Compound Test\|Moulding compound test]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	{\|		{\|
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	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[2]		\|[2]
	\|Stoeckhert, K., Woebcken, W. (Eds.): Kunststoff-Lexikon. Carl Hanser Munich Vienna (1998), 9th Edition, p. 605, (ISBN 3-446-17969-0) (see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung \|~~ AMK-Library]] under G 3)		\|Stoeckhert, K., Woebcken, W. (Eds.): Kunststoff-Lexikon. Carl Hanser Munich Vienna (1998), 9th Edition, p. 605, (ISBN 3-446-17969-0) (see [[AMK-Library]] under G 3)
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	\|[3]		\|[3]

Vulcanization

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	* [[Curing]]		* [[Curing]]

			==References==

	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	{\|		{\|
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[1]		\|[1]
	\|[https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Elsner Elsner, P.], [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Eyerer Eyerer, P.], Hirth, T. (Eds.): Kunststoffe Eigenschaften und Anwendungen. 8th revised and extended Edition, Springer Heidelberg (2012) (ISBN 978-3-642-16172-8; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under G 41)		\|[https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Elsner Elsner, P.], [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Eyerer Eyerer, P.], Hirth, T. (Eds.): Kunststoffe Eigenschaften und Anwendungen. 8th revised and extended Edition, Springer Heidelberg (2012) (ISBN 978-3-642-16172-8; see [[AMK-Library]] under G 41)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[2]		\|[2]

Volume Swelling Elastomers

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	* [[Vulcanization]]		* [[Vulcanization]]

	~~'''~~References~~'''~~		==References==

	{\|		{\|

Volume Resistance

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	* [[Dielectric Loss Factor\|Dielectric loss factor]]		* [[Dielectric Loss Factor\|Dielectric loss factor]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	* Hellerich, W., Harsch, G., Haenle, S.: Werkstoffführer Kunststoffe: Eigenschaften, Prüfungen, Kennwerte. Carl Hanser Munich Vienna (2004) (ISBN 978-3-446-22559-6)		* Hellerich, W., Harsch, G., Haenle, S.: Werkstoffführer Kunststoffe: Eigenschaften, Prüfungen, Kennwerte. Carl Hanser Munich Vienna (2004) (ISBN 978-3-446-22559-6)
	* DIN IEC 60093 (1993-12): Methods of Test for Insulating Materials for Electrical Purposes; Volume Resitivity and Surface Resistivity of Solid Electrical Insulating Materials (IEC 60093:1980), German Version HD 429 S1:1983 (withdrawn; replaced by DIN EN IEC 62631-3-1 (2023-10))		* DIN IEC 60093 (1993-12): Methods of Test for Insulating Materials for Electrical Purposes; Volume Resitivity and Surface Resistivity of Solid Electrical Insulating Materials (IEC 60093:1980), German Version HD 429 S1:1983 (withdrawn; replaced by DIN EN IEC 62631-3-1 (2023-10))
	* DIN EN IEC 62631-3-1 (2023-10): Dielectric and Resistive Properties of Solid Insulating Matrials – Part 3-1: Determination of Resistive Properties (DC methods) – Volume Resistance and Volume Resistivity – General Method (identical with VDE 0307-3-1:2023-10)		* DIN EN IEC 62631-3-1 (2023-10): Dielectric and Resistive Properties of Solid Insulating Matrials – Part 3-1: Determination of Resistive Properties (DC methods) – Volume Resistance and Volume Resistivity – General Method (identical with VDE 0307-3-1:2023-10)
	* Schönhals, A.: Electrical and Dielectrical Properties. In: [[Grellmann, Wolfgang\|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler, Sabine\|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022) 3rd Edition, pp. 330–368 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under A 22)		* Schönhals, A.: Electrical and Dielectrical Properties. In: [[Grellmann, Wolfgang\|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler, Sabine\|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022) 3rd Edition, pp. 330–368 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 22)

	'''Additional References'''		'''Additional References'''

File:Vickers Hardness.jpg

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 12:17:49 GMT

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Vickers Hardness

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 12:17:29 GMT

Created page with "{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Vickers-Härte}} {{PSM_Infobox}} Vickers hardness __FORCETOC__ ==General information== The Vickers hardness testing method (named after the English company Vickers) was developed in 1925 by Smith and Sandland. The decisive factor was that the applicability of Brinell hardness was limited due to the flattening of the steel ball, and carbide balls were not yet available at that time...."

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{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Vickers-Härte}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Vickers hardness
__FORCETOC__

==General information==

The Vickers hardness testing method (named after the English company Vickers) was developed in 1925 by Smith and Sandland. The decisive factor was that the applicability of Brinell hardness was limited due to the flattening of the steel ball, and carbide balls were not yet available at that time.

==Measurement principle of Vickers hardness==

The Vickers method is very similar to the Brinell method. Instead of a ball, a regular, four-sided diamond pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136° between the opposite areas is used as the [[Indenter|indenter]]. The indenter is pressed vertically into the test specimen or sample with a test load ''F'', and the impression is normally measured under a light microscope in the manner illustrated in the image after the load is removed:

[[File:Vickers Hardness.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig.''':
|width="600px" |Schematic illustration of Vickers [[Hardness|hardness]] testing with measurement technology (a), indentation creation (b), and indentation measurement (c)
|}

The test load must be adapted to the respective geometric and morphological conditions; as a rule, tests are performed with loads ≤ 5 N. Normally, the test load ''F'' in the Vickers hardness test is selected so that the indentation diagonal ''d'' is relatively large compared to the structural components (internal averaging) and can thus be measured more [[Measuring Accuracy|accurately]] (lower relative error). However, the [[Hardness|hardness]] of individual structural components can also be measured specifically, in which case the geometric conditions must be selected in exactly the opposite way.

==Definition of Vickers hardness==

The lengths of the two indentation diagonals are determined as the [[Measured Variable|measured variables]]. From this, the average indentation diagonal ''d'' is calculated, which is used to calculate the Vickers hardness HV.

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>HV\,=\,\frac{F}{A}\,=\,\frac{0{.}1891 \; F}{d^2}</math>
|}

with
{|
|-
|HV
|width="15px" |
|Vickers hardness in N mm-2
|-
|''F''
|
|test load in N
|-
|''A''
|
|Indentation surface in mm2
|-
|''d''
|
|Average value of indentation diagonal in mm
|}

''Comment:''

''In the hardness testing of [[Plastics|plastics]], the physically exact unit of measurement N mm-2 is always specified for the hardness value. When testing the hardness of metallic materials, the test force F is multiplied by 0.102 (≈1/9.80665 = 1/gn) (gn – acceleration due to gravity). The resulting value has the dimension kp. However, since the kp was removed from the hardness designation, this unit is no longer specified; only the hardness value without dimension is given. The kp can still be found as a specification for the test force levels, especially on older hardness testing machines.''

When performing the Vickers test, the resulting indentation is normally measured after unloading, but there are also ways to determine it under load. In this case, the test specimen surface and thus the indentation diagonal are observed through the diamond [[Indenter|indenter]], which allows, for example, real-time conclusions to be drawn about [[Creep Plastics|creep behaviour]].

While the Vickers method is standardized for metallic materials and therefore test load recommendations exist for the micro, small load, and macro ranges, the Vickers method is not standardized for [[Plastics|plastics]].

==Instrumented hardness testing with Vickers indenter==

In [[Hardness#Instrumented hardness testing|instrumented hardness testing]] with Vickers indenters, the entire indentation process is recorded during loading and load–indentation depth diagrams are recorded. Due to the pyramid geometry, the indentation depth ''h'' is related to the indentation diagonal ''d'' by the relationship ''h'' = ''d''/7.0006.

In addition to the hardness value, [[Hardness#Instrumented hardness testing|instrumented hardness testing]] can be used to determine other mechanical [[Material Parameter|material parameters]] such as the modulus of elasticity ([[Indentation Modulus|indentation modulus]]), work hardening exponents, and [[Viscoelastic Material Behaviour|viscoelastic properties]].

==See also==

* [[Conventional Hardness Testing|Conventional hardness testing]]
* [[Ball Indentation Hardness|Ball indentation hardness]]
* [[Scratch Hardness|Scratch hardness]]
* [[TABOR Relationship|TABOR relationship]]
* [[Instrumented Scratch Testing|Instrumented scratch testing]]

==References==

* [[Blumenauer, Horst]] (Ed.): Werkstoffprüfung. Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig Stuttgart (1994) 6th Edition, (ISBN 978-3-342-00547-6; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 3)
* [[Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler,_Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Kunststoffprüfung. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022) 3rd Edition, p. 180 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; e-Book ISBN 978-1-56990-807-5; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 22)

[[Category:Hardness]]

Vicat Softening Temperature

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	* [[Heat Resistance \| Heat resistance]]		* [[Heat Resistance \| Heat resistance]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	{\|		{\|
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[1]		\|[1]
	\|[[Grellmann,_Wolfgang\|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler,_Sabine\|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Munich (2022) 3rd Edition (2022) pp. 570–573 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung \|~~ AMK-Library]] under A 22)		\|[[Grellmann,_Wolfgang\|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler,_Sabine\|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Munich (2022) 3rd Edition (2022) pp. 570–573 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 22)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[2]		\|[2]
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	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[3]		\|[3]
	\|Carlowitz, B.: Tabellarische Übersicht über die Prüfung von Kunststoffen. Giesel Verlag für Publizität, Isernhagen (1992) (ISBN 978-3980294201; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung \|~~ AMK-Library]] under C 9)		\|Carlowitz, B.: Tabellarische Übersicht über die Prüfung von Kunststoffen. Giesel Verlag für Publizität, Isernhagen (1992) (ISBN 978-3980294201; see [[AMK-Library]] under C 9)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[4]		\|[4]
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	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[5]		\|[5]
	\|Kotter, I., [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.]: Vicat Softening Temperature and Heat Distortion Temperature. In: [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Grellmann Grellmann, W.], [[Seidler,_Sabine\|Seidler, S.]]: Mechanical and Thermomechanical Properties of Polymers. Landolt-Börnstein. Volume VIII/6A3, Springer Berlin (2014) pp. 62–75, (ISBN 978-3-642-55165-9; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung \|~~ AMK-Library]] under A 16)		\|Kotter, I., [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.]: Vicat Softening Temperature and Heat Distortion Temperature. In: [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Grellmann Grellmann, W.], [[Seidler,_Sabine\|Seidler, S.]]: Mechanical and Thermomechanical Properties of Polymers. Landolt-Börnstein. Volume VIII/6A3, Springer Berlin (2014) pp. 62–75, (ISBN 978-3-642-55165-9; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 16)
	\|}		\|}

File:Schwingungsbruch-6.jpg

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File:Vibration Fructure Fig-5.jpg

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File:Schwingungsbruch-4.jpg

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File:Vibration Fructure Fig-3.jpg

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File:Schwingungsbruch-2.jpg

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File:Vibration Fructure Fig-1.jpg

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Vibration Fracture

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 12:14:30 GMT

Created page with "{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Schwingungsbruch}} {{PSM_Infobox}} Vibration fracture __FORCETOC__ ==General information== Vibration fractures occur during dynamic or vibrating stress on components in practical applications or on test specimens in so-called fatigue tests [1, 2]. Compared to static, quasi-static or ..."

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{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Schwingungsbruch}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Vibration fracture
__FORCETOC__

==General information==

Vibration fractures occur during dynamic or [[Fatigue|vibrating]] [[Stress|stress]] on [[Plastic Component|components]] in practical applications or on test [[Specimen|specimens]] in so-called [[Fatigue|fatigue]] tests [1, 2]. Compared to static, [[Quasi-static Test Methods|quasi-static]] or [[Impact Loading Plastics|impact stress]], failure under vibrating loads results in [[Fracture Surface|fracture surfaces]] with a different appearance. In general, the fracture surfaces of metallic materials and [[Plastics|plastics]] under dynamic stress have similar fracture surface characteristics (see: [[Fracture Types|types of fracture]]), which are significantly influenced by the [[Ductility Plastics|ductility]] and [[Toughness|toughness]] of the materials under investigation.

However, differences in the fracture patterns of metals and plastics are also caused by the type of fatigue test. While the tensile threshold range and low test frequencies (< 50 Hz) are preferred for plastics due to the thin geometric shape of the components or test specimens, higher frequencies can be used for metals and both the alternating and compressive threshold ranges can be used to characterise the fatigue properties ('''Fig. 1''').

[[File:Vibration_Fructure_Fig-1.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px"|Stress areas in continuous vibration testing (fatigue testing)
|}

==Fatigue fractures in plastics==

The starting point for the development of fatigue fractures in plastics can be internal discontinuities (voids or inclusions) or [[Crack|microcracks]], as well as other [[Surface|surface]] defects caused by the manufacture or processing of the components. On a microscopic scale, no surface is perfectly smooth and flat, but rather exhibits minimal roughness and fine cracks, which cause localised three-dimensional stress concentrations due to the [[Notch Sensitivity|notch effect]].

As a result, the [[Yield Stress|yield strength]] is exceeded in the local area and microplastic deformations occur, which in turn can lead to strengthening effects. The sum of these local [[Deformation|deformation]] processes then forms an initial crack, which spreads deeper into the interior of the material with each load cycle due to energy input and crack propagation. This [[Crack Propagation|crack propagation]] characterises the onset of fatigue fracture. Depending on the test temperature, media exposure, mean stress ''σ''m and stress amplitude ''σ''a, this crack propagation will take a different amount of time until final total fracture.

As a result of the change in load and the cyclic propagation of the crack, typical vibration or oscillation stripes form in the material during the crack propagation phase, but these are only visible with high-resolution microscopic testing methods ([[Scanning Electron Microscopy|scanning electron microscopy (SEM)]] or scanning tunnelling microscopes).

If there are arrest or recovery phases or periods of greatly increased stress during loading, local stress relaxation (see: [[Relaxation Plastics|Relaxation plastics]]) or increased crack propagation occurs, and the fatigue stripes can be seen as arrest lines (see: [[Fracture Types|fracture types]], [[Fractography|fractography]] and [[Waves and Arrest Lines|waves and arrest lines]]) using a loupe or light microscopy.

The arrest lines also become visible because the change in multi-stage stress is always associated with a variation in the crack propagation speed. Since the arrest lines always run perpendicular to the direction of crack propagation, the point of crack initiation can be determined relatively easily based on their arrangement and course. If the time intervals between the stress changes or the arrest lines are known, the number of arrest lines can be used to determine the time at which crack propagation began [3].

==Fatigue fractures in brittle plastics==

In the case of [[Plastics|plastics]] with very low deformability, such as polystyrene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PS) or polymethyl methacrylate ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PMMA), and the presence of micro-notches on the surface or inside the material, a crack tip can form under dynamic stress, which, after initial blunting, exhibits stable crack propagation behaviour (see also: [[Fracture Mechanics|fracture mechanics]] and [[Crack Resistance (R) Curve|crack resistance curve]]). The opening and closing of the crack flanks provides the energy necessary for stable crack propagation under cyclic stress ('''Fig. 2a'''). The structural explanation for this behaviour is the low extensibility of the molecular chains, which are oriented in the stress field in front of the crack tip ([[Crazing|fibrillation]]) and then separated by the advancing crack front ('''Fig. 2b'''), causing the structural integrity of the [[Plastic Component|component]] or test [[Specimen|specimen]] (compliance) to continuously decrease.

[[File:Schwingungsbruch-2.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px"|Fracture propagation in brittle plastics with vibration stripes according to [4]
|}

As the crack progresses, parallel vibration stripes form in the material; the characteristics thereof depend on the type of plastic and the load parameters (frequency, mean stress and stress amplitude). Brittle plastics exhibit vibration stripes with very flat profiles and sharp-edged steps between the fracture paths, with inclusions acting as obstacles and only partially visible on the [[Fracture Surface|fracture surface]] surface ('''Fig. 3a'''). The vibration stripes without secondary cracks shown schematically in '''Fig. 3a''' are clearly visible in polyamide 12 in '''Fig. 3b'''. Hard inclusions in the base material are usually bypassed by the crack front, causing them to be covered by the fracture ('''Fig. 4a''') or to lie exposed and separated from the matrix on it ('''Fig. 4b'''). Very soft particles are usually separated from the crack front and are then invisible [4].

[[File:Vibration Fructure Fig-3.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px"|Brittle vibration fractures (a) Schematic diagram and (b) [[Scanning Electron Microscopy|scanning electron microscope]] image of a vibration fracture with arrest lines in spray-dried polyamide 12 ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PA12)
|}

[[File:Schwingungsbruch-4.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 4''':
|width="600px"|Brittle vibration fractures of (a) compressed styrene-acrylonitrile (abbreviation: SAN) and (b) a polystyrene-rubber compound with embedded polystyrene particles (0.1 to 0.5 µm) ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PS) according to [4]
|}
|}

As the crack propagates, the remaining load-bearing cross-section decreases, causing the stress to be distributed over an increasingly smaller area. If the [[Tensile Strength|tensile strength]] is exceeded, violent or brittle fracture occurs (see: [[Fracture Types|types of fracture]]). No vibration striations or notch lines are visible in the area of unstable brittle fracture.

==Fatigue fractures in tough plastics==

In [[Toughness|tough]] plastics, the vibration stripes are usually not as clearly defined due to high [[Deformation#Plastic deformation|plastic deformation]], but instead have a wrinkled or rounded appearance. In terms of volume ('''Fig. 5a'''), the vibration fracture paths can also spread out in parallel from different crack initiation positions. The open fracture surface (see also: [[Fractography|fractography]] and [[Component Failure|component failure]]) shows the typical vibration strips ('''Fig. 5b''') with the fracture steps and exposed inclusions on the surface.

[[File:Vibration Fructure Fig-5.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 5''':
|width="600px"|Schematic diagram of ductile vibration fractures (a) in volume and (b) typical habitus of the brittle fracture surface according to [4]
|}

A characteristic vibration fracture surface for a standard-moisture polyamide 66 ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation: PA 66]]) is shown in '''Fig. 6''' with clearly visible vibration stripes and a wave-like structure.

[[File:Schwingungsbruch-6.jpg|350px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 6''':
|width="600px"|Ductile fracture of a polyamide 66 test specimen after [4]
|}

As can be seen, fatigue fracture can be identified in two typical fracture areas: the area of the arrest lines or vibration stripes and the residual fracture surface. This vibration fracture surface is usually relatively smooth, while the brittle fracture surface is generally heavily fractured.

==See also==

* [[Fatigue]]
* [[Fatigue Strength|Fatigue strength]]
* [[Fracture Types|Fracture types]]
* [[Vibration-induced Creep Fracture|Vibration-induced creep fracture]]
* [[Fractography]]

==References==

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Höninger, H.: Fatigue Behaviour. In: [[Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler,_Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022) 3rd Edition, pp. 156–166 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book: ISBN 978-1-56990-807-5; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 22)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|[[Bierögel, Christian|Bierögel, C.]], [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.]: Fatigue Loading. In: [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Grellmann Grellmann, W.], Seidler, S. (Eds.): Mechanical and Thermomechanical Properties of Polymers. Landolt-Börnstein. Volume VIII/6A3, Springer, Berlin (2014) pp. 241–285, (ISBN 978-3-642-55165-9; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 16)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|[[Ehrenstein, Gottfried W.|Ehrenstein, G. W.]], Engel, K., Klingele, H., Schaper, H.: Scanning Electron Microscopy of Plastics Failure. Carl Hanser, Munich (2011), (ISBN 978-3-446-42242-1; see [[AMK-Library]] under D 5)
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|Ehrenstein, G. W.: Schadensanalyse an Kunststoff-Formteilen. VDI Publishing Düsseldorf (1981), (ISBN 3-18-404068-2; see [[AMK-Library]] under D 3)
|}

[[Category:Fatigue]]

Velocity

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 12:14:13 GMT

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:14, 7 September 2026
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	* [[Fracture Mechanical Testing \| Fracture mechanical testing]]		* [[Fracture Mechanical Testing \| Fracture mechanical testing]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	* [[Grellmann,_Wolfgang\|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler,_Sabine\|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing Carl Hanser Munich (2022) 3rd. Edition, (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book ISBN 978-156990-807-5; see AMK-Library under A 22)		* [[Grellmann,_Wolfgang\|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler,_Sabine\|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing Carl Hanser Munich (2022) 3rd. Edition, (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book ISBN 978-156990-807-5; see AMK-Library under A 22)

	[[Category:Velocity]]		[[Category:Velocity]]

File:Einachsiger Spannungszustand 4.jpg

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File:Einachsiger Spannungszustand 3.jpg

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File:Einachsiger Spannungszustand 2.jpg

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File:Uniaxial Stress State-Fig1.jpg

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Uniaxial Stress State

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:44:09 GMT

Created page with "{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Einachsiger Spannungszustand}} {{PSM_Infobox}} Uniaxial stress state __FORCETOC__ ==Stress state in tensile and compression test== If a test specimen, which is supposed to be in a plane stress state, is loaded by a tensile or compressive force ('''Fig. 1'''), then, according to the cut reactions with the cut angle ''α'' = 0, a normal..."

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{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Einachsiger Spannungszustand}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Uniaxial stress state 
__FORCETOC__

==Stress state in tensile and compression test==

If a [[Specimen|test specimen]], which is supposed to be in a [[Plane Stress and Strain State|plane stress state]], is loaded by a tensile or compressive force ('''Fig. 1'''), then, according to the cut reactions with the cut angle ''α'' = 0, a normal force ''F''N corresponding to the external load ''F'' is generated in the test specimen. If there are no internal or external inhomogeneities such as cavities, inclusions or [[Notch|notches]], and if there is no tendency to demould, the applied load is distributed as a surface load over the test specimen cross-section ''A''0 and is specified as a normalised force or normal stress in accordance with '''Eq. (1)'''. This normal stress ''σ''x or ''σ''N has a positive sign in the case of [[Tensile Test|tensile stress]] and a negative sign in the case of compressive stress, and is constant across the test specimen cross-section under the conditions specified [1, 2].

[[File:Uniaxial_Stress_State-Fig1.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Uniaxial stress state in the [[Tensile Test|tensile test]] (a) and in the [[Compression Test|compression test]] (b)
|}

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px"|<math>\sigma _{x}=\sigma _{N}=\frac{F_{N}}{A_{0}}</math>
|(1)
|}

==MOHR's stress circle==

If the cut reactions are determined at an angle ''α'' > 0, a parallelogram of reaction forces is obtained ('''Fig. 2a''') and, according to '''Eqs. (2)''' and '''(3)''', the normal stress ''σ''N and the [[Bend Test – Shear Stress|shear stress]] ''τ'' acting in the test specimen cross-section are derived from the equilibrium conditions [3].

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px"|<math>\sigma _{x}=\frac{1}{2}\sigma _{\alpha} \cdot (1+\cos 2\alpha )</math>
|(2)
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px"|<math>r=\frac{1}{2}\sigma _{\alpha}\cdot \sin 2\alpha</math>
|(3)
|}

[[File:Einachsiger_Spannungszustand_2.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px"|Cutting reactions at angle ''α'' (a) and MOHR's stress circle (b)
|}

'''Equations (2)''' and '''(3)''' yield '''Eq. (4)''' of MOHR's stress circle (named after Christian Otto Mohr), in which the normal and shear stresses associated with the angle of cut are represented [3].

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px"|<math>\left ( \sigma _{N}-\frac{1}{2}\sigma _{\alpha } \right )^{2}+\tau^{2}=\left ( \frac{1}{2}\sigma _{\alpha } \right )^{2}</math>
|(4)
|}

The illustration in '''Fig. 2b''' shows that the maximum shear stress occurs at an angle of 45°, and is therefore ''τ''max = ''σ''α/2. Macroscopically, the shear stress component manifests itself in [[Tensile Test|tensile]] or [[Compression Test|compression tests]], for example, through slip or shear fracture and deformation cones in ductile metals, as well as through flow lines visible on the [[Surface|surface]], also known as Lüders lines. In [[Plastics|plastics]], so-called [[Shear Band Formation|shear bands]] can be observed on the surface of the test specimen in tensile tests under certain test conditions, which represent one of the dominant deformation processes ('''Fig. 3'''). In [[Ductility Plastics|ductile plastics]] that constrict, the flanks of the constriction fronts often have an angle of approximately less than 45°.

[[File:Einachsiger_Spannungszustand_3.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px"|Shear bands in acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: ABS) in tensile testing
|}

==Stress distribution in three-point bending==

A special case of uniaxial stress occurs in the case of pure [[Bend Test|bending]] about one axis, whereby, however, an inhomogeneous stress state occurs here due to the simultaneous occurrence of tensile, compressive and shear stresses [2, 4]. In the case of identical tensile and compressive properties of the material under investigation, the maximum stress ''σ''f in the peripheral fibre ( see: [[Peripheral Fibre Strain|peripheral fibre strain]]) of the test specimen is calculated according to '''Eq. (5)''' for [[Bend Test#The three-point bending test method|three-point bending]], and the stress distribution in the cross-section is symmetrical with the neutral or stress- and strain-free axis ('''Fig. 4a''').

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px"|<math>\sigma _{f}=\frac{3\cdot F\cdot L}{2\cdot b\cdot h^{2}}</math>
|(5)
|}

Due to the shear force bending, additional shear stresses occur in the cross-section, which are distributed parabolically and reach their maximum in the neutral fibre or axis ('''Fig. 4b'''). These shear stresses are negligible in the [[Bend Test|bending test]] on plastics if the condition [[Support Distance|span]] ''L''/specimen thickness ''h'' ≥ 16 is fulfilled.

In simplified terms, the maximum shear stress can be calculated for a rectangular cross-section according to '''Eq. (6)''' [3]:

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px"|<math>\tau_{max}=\frac{3\cdot F}{4\cdot b\cdot h}</math>
|(6)
|}

[[File:Einachsiger_Spannungszustand_4.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 4''':
|width="600px"|Normal stress distribution (a) and shear stress distribution (b) in the cross-section of a test specimen under three-point bending
|}

Due to the shear sensitivity of laminates or layered [[Composite Materials Testing|composite materials]] and the potential risk of delamination, these [[Material & Werkstoff|materials]] must satisfy the condition ''L''/''h'' ≥ (20−25) in bending tests. If the material exhibits different tensile and compressive behaviour, a displacement of the neutral fibre occurs, resulting in a non-linear and asymmetrical stress distribution in the cross-section.

==See also==

* [[Compression Test|Compression test]]
* [[Tensile Test|Tensile test]]
* [[Bend Test|Bend test]]
* [[Plane Stress and Strain State|Plane stress and strain state]]
* [[Multiaxial Stress State|Multiaxial stress state]]

==References==

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Lüpke, T.: Fundamental Principles of Mechanical Behavior. In: [[Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler,_Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022), 3rd Edition pp. 71–86 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book: ISBN 978-1-56990-807-5; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 22)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|[[Bierögel,_Christian|Bierögel, C.]]: Quasi-static Test Methods. In: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.], Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022), 3rd Edition pp. 101–143 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book: ISBN 978-1-56990-807-5; see AMK-Library under A 22)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|Szabo, I.: Einführung in die Technische Mechanik. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (1984) 8th Edition (ISBN 3-540-13293-7)
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|Erhard, G.: Konstruieren mit Kunststoffen. Carl Hanser, Munich (2008) 7th Edition, pp. 189–198 (ISBN 978-3-446-41646-8)
|}

[[Category:Deformation]]
[[Category:Compression Test]]
[[Category:Tensile Test]]

Ultrasound Testing

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:43:46 GMT

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:43, 7 September 2026
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	Flaw detection based on ultrasound is one of the oldest [[Non-destructive Testing (NDT) \| non-destructive testing methods]] alongside X-ray gross structure analysis. Following the discovery of the [[Piezoelectric Force Transducer\|piezoelectric effect]] (1880–1881) by the Curie brothers for measuring and generating non-stationary pressures and vibrations, the beginnings of the technical utilisation of ultrasound can be dated to around 1940. It was recognised that ultrasound interacts with the workpiece to be tested and reacts with a change in intensity and transit time. In 1942, the technical foundations were laid for time-of-flight measurement with separate transmitter and receiver sensors in through-transmission mode (Trostzange) and later for pulse-echo technology. In the years 1949–1950, Krautkrämer, Hürth, developed the first analogue ultrasonic testing device for non-destructive fault detection using [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique \| pulse-echo ultrasonic technique]]. In 1973, Karl Deutsch released the first device with a digital display and in 1982 the Echograph with an integrated microprocessor.		Flaw detection based on ultrasound is one of the oldest [[Non-destructive Testing (NDT) \| non-destructive testing methods]] alongside X-ray gross structure analysis. Following the discovery of the [[Piezoelectric Force Transducer\|piezoelectric effect]] (1880–1881) by the Curie brothers for measuring and generating non-stationary pressures and vibrations, the beginnings of the technical utilisation of ultrasound can be dated to around 1940. It was recognised that ultrasound interacts with the workpiece to be tested and reacts with a change in intensity and transit time. In 1942, the technical foundations were laid for time-of-flight measurement with separate transmitter and receiver sensors in through-transmission mode (Trostzange) and later for pulse-echo technology. In the years 1949–1950, Krautkrämer, Hürth, developed the first analogue ultrasonic testing device for non-destructive fault detection using [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique \| pulse-echo ultrasonic technique]]. In 1973, Karl Deutsch released the first device with a digital display and in 1982 the Echograph with an integrated microprocessor.

	Following the development of angle beam sensors (approx. 1952) and [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) ~~Sensor~~ \| transmitter-receiver sensors]] (approx. 1957), welded joints and thin components could be analysed for specific manufacturing or processing-related defects. The development of [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique \| ultrasonic immersion bath technology]] using imaging ultrasound can be dated to around 1970 and squirter technology and [[Air-Ultrasound \| air-ultrasound]] to around 1980 [1, 2]. More recent developments in digital testing technology, phased array technology, the TOFD testing and evaluation method (Time of Flight Diffraction Technique) or guided waves prove that the physical limits of ultrasonic testing technology are far from exhausted.		Following the development of angle beam sensors (approx. 1952) and [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors\|transmitter-receiver sensors]] (approx. 1957), welded joints and thin components could be analysed for specific manufacturing or processing-related defects. The development of [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique \| ultrasonic immersion bath technology]] using imaging ultrasound can be dated to around 1970 and squirter technology and [[Air-Ultrasound \| air-ultrasound]] to around 1980 [1, 2]. More recent developments in digital testing technology, phased array technology, the TOFD testing and evaluation method (Time of Flight Diffraction Technique) or guided waves prove that the physical limits of ultrasonic testing technology are far from exhausted.

	==Ultrasonic testing technology==		==Ultrasonic testing technology==
Line 46:		Line 46:
	* [[Ultrasonic Runtime Measurement \| Ultrasound runtime measurement]]		* [[Ultrasonic Runtime Measurement \| Ultrasound runtime measurement]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	{\|		{\|
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	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[4]		\|[4]
	\|Deutsch, V., Platte, M., Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung – Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (1997), (ISBN 3-540-62072-9; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under M 45)		\|Deutsch, V., Platte, M., Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung – Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (1997), (ISBN 3-540-62072-9; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 45)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[5]		\|[5]
	\|Matthies, K. u. a.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS-Verlag GmbH, 2nd Edition, Berlin (1998), (ISBN 3-87155-940-7; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under M 44)		\|Matthies, K. u. a.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS-Verlag GmbH, 2nd Edition, Berlin (1998), (ISBN 3-87155-940-7; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 44)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[6]		\|[6]
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	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[8]		\|[8]
	\|DIN EN 1330-4 (2010-05): Non-destructive Testing – Terminology – Part 4: Terms Used in Ultrasonic Testing (withdrawn; replaced by ISO 5577 (2025-09~~-Draft~~))		\|DIN EN 1330-4 (2010-05): Non-destructive Testing – Terminology – Part 4: Terms Used in Ultrasonic Testing (withdrawn; replaced by ISO 5577 (2025-09))
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[9]		\|[9]
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	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|}		\|}



	[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]		[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]
	[[Category:Velocity]]		[[Category:Velocity]]

File:US gefuehrte Wellen-2.jpg

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:43:20 GMT

Oluschinski uploaded File:US gefuehrte Wellen-2.jpg

New page

File:US gefuehrte Wellen-1.jpg

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:43:11 GMT

Oluschinski uploaded File:US gefuehrte Wellen-1.jpg

New page

Ultrasound-guided Waves

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:42:42 GMT

Created page with "{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Ultraschall-Geführte-Wellen}} {{PSM_Infobox}} Ultrasound guided waves __FORCETOC__ ==Definition of guided waves== By definition, ‘guided waves’ are types of waves that propagate in the main axis direction of a comparatively thin medium, i.e. they are conducted or guided through the medium. The distance or thickness ''d'' of the confining surface layers in the normal direction is..."

New page

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Ultraschall-Geführte-Wellen}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Ultrasound guided waves
__FORCETOC__

==Definition of guided waves==

By definition, ‘guided waves’ are types of waves that propagate in the main axis direction of a comparatively thin medium, i.e. they are conducted or guided through the medium. The distance or thickness ''d'' of the confining surface layers in the normal direction is approximately in the order of magnitude of the wavelength ''λ'', i.e. ''d'' ≈ ''λ''. The term ‘guided waves’ is therefore justified by the ‘guidance’ of the waves through the geometry of the tested [[Plastic Component|component]], although [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb_waves Lamb] or plate waves are generally a vibration-related property of thin plates or membranes, as is the hat wave.

==Types of waves and their propagation==

The plate waves or guided waves, which propagate differently from Rayleigh waves (surface waves, see '''Fig. 1a'''), Stoneley waves and Love waves ('''Fig. 1b''') in the presence of [[Phase Boundary Surface|interface surfaces]], are divided into symmetric and asymmetric plate or Lamb waves ('''Fig. 2''') and represent their vibration modes. Stoneley and Love waves, which are also known from seismology [1], have so far been of little significance in [[Non-destructive Testing (NDT)|non-destructive testing (NDT)]], but are already being used for special applications in [[Ultrasound Testing|ultrasound testing]] [2−4]. Surface waves (Fig. 1a) are very important for [[Sound Emission Testing|sound emission testing]] (SEP) and acousto-ultrasonics testing, as these waves are only slightly attenuated in their direction of propagation and can therefore be received over long distances, whereby special AE probes are used [5, 6]. The symmetric plate wave ('''Fig. 2a''') is also referred to as the S-type and the asymmetric wave as the A-type ('''Fig. 2b''') with different vibration modes (index 1, 2, 3) if the wavelength becomes very small. With such geometric wave types, the propagation velocity generally depends on the wavelength and leads to [[Dispersion|dispersion]] phenomena in the [[Material & Werkstoff|material]].

[[File:US_gefuehrte_Wellen-1.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px"|Direction of propagation (AR) and direction of vibration (SR) of (a) Rayleigh waves and (b) Love waves
|}

[[File:US_gefuehrte_Wellen-2.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px"|Examples of guided waves: (a) symmetric plate wave, (b) asymmetric plate wave (Lamb waves) with the direction of propagation (AR) and direction of vibration (SR)
|}

Plate waves with limited geometries, as shown in '''Figure 2a''', are also referred to as expansion or compression waves, whereby it can be seen that the neutral fibre of the plate does not change its geometric position (pure longitudinal vibration), in contrast to the asymmetrical wave in '''Figure 2b''', where the neutral fibre performs a transverse vibration. It is typical for Lamb waves that also harmonics can occur, although their amplitude decreases significantly with increasing order.

==Requirements for component testing==

The guided surface waves do not emerge from the [[Material & Werkstoff|material]] but remain ‘attached’ to the geometry, similar to light waves in glass fibres. This means that possible geometric changes, such as component curvatures or edges, do not pose an obstacle for these waves and (due to ''d'' ≈ ''λ'') no [[Ultrasonic Waves Reflection|reflection]] of sound waves occurs at them. As a result, the loss of sound energy into the adjacent media is considerably lower than with established methods of [[Ultrasound Testing|ultrasound testing]], such as the [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique|pulse-echo method]]. The guided waves therefore propagate almost undamped in the tested medium and can therefore be transmitted over relatively long distances to perform tests on [[Plastic Component|components]] that are inaccessible in places, such as pipe penetrations under roads or buildings [7]. Guided waves are actively excited in the component to be tested by means of a suitable transmitter and received by the identical receiver (echo mode) or an additional ultrasonic probe ([[Ultrasonic Transmission Technique|transmission mode]]).

When propagating guided waves, however, it should be noted that different wave modes can be excited depending on the excitation frequency and the component thickness, and [[Dispersion|dispersions]] can occur [8], which can sometimes make it considerably more difficult to interpret structural damage that has occurred.

==Application examples for guided waves==

However, guided waves have a wide range of applications and are particularly useful when sections of large [[Component Testing|components]], such as pipes or tanks, are difficult to access. Current technical literature cites the following areas of application [9−13]:

* Inspection of plates,
* Pipe inspection,
* Inspection of [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values|adhesive joints]],
* Airfoil inspection,
* Structural monitoring for early damage detection (permanent),
* Inspection of wind turbines (rotor blades),
* Container and tank inspection.

==See also==

* [[Ultrasonic Direct Coupling|Ultrasonic direct coupling]]
* [[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters|Ultrasound – Elastic parameters]]
* [[Ultrasonic Modulation|Ultrasonic modulation]]
* [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors|Ultrasonic transmitter(S)-receiver(E) sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Wall Thickness Measurement|Ultrasonic wall thickness measurement]]

==References==

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Clauser, C.: Einführung in die Geophysik. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 2nd Edition (2016), (ISBN 978-3-662-46883-8)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|Malischewsky, P. G., Schnapp, J.-D.: Oberflächenwellen und Materialprüfung aus seismologischer Sicht. DGZfP-Dach Jahrestagung, Salzburg (2004)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|Wendrich, A.: Zerstörungsfreie Ortung von Anomalien in historischem Mauerwerk mit Radar und Ultraschall – Möglichkeiten und Grenzen. ([https://e-pub.uni-weimar.de/opus4/frontdoor/index/index/start/0/rows/10/sortfield/score/sortorder/desc/searchtype/simple/query/Zerst%C3%B6rungsfreie+Ortung+von+Anomalien+in+historischem+Mauerwerk+mit+Radar+und+Ultraschall+%E2%80%93+M%C3%B6glichkeiten+und+Grenzen/docId/1397 Dissertation]), Bauhaus-Universität Weimar (2008)
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|Jüngert, A.: Untersuchung von GFK-Bauteilen mit akustischen Verfahren am Beispiel der Rotorblätter von Windenergieanlagen. ([https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/item/OP6NMQB4ID6D36DV2L6L32K4JFFSD7IE?isThumbnailFiltered=true&query=Untersuchung+von+GFK-Bauteilen+mit+akustischen+Verfahren+am+Beispiel+der+Rotorbl%C3%A4tter+von+Windenergieanlagen&rows=20&offset=0&viewType=list&firstHit=OP6NMQB4ID6D36DV2L6L32K4JFFSD7IE&lastHit=lasthit&hitNumber=1 Dissertation]), Universität Stuttgart (2010) (access on November 30, 2025)
|-valign="top"
|[5]
|Meyer, E., Neumann, E.-G.: Physikalische und technische Akustik. Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2nd Edition, (2013), (ISBN 978-3-322-91086-8)
|-valign="top"
|[6]
|Grosse, C. U., Ohtsu, M. (Eds.): Acoustic Emission Testing. Springer Verlag, Berlin (2008), (ISBN 978-3-540-69895-1)
|-valign="top"
|[7]
|Prager, J., Gravenkamp, H., Rahman, M.-U., Köppe, E.: Einsatz geführter Wellen für die Ultraschallprüfung. tm − Technisches Messen Plattform für Methoden, Systeme und Anwendungen der Messtechnik. 79 (2012) 5, pp. 251–261, DOI: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/teme.2012.0168/html
|-valign="top"
|[8]
|Schmidt, D.: Modenselektive Übertragung von Lambwellen in Faserverbundstrukturen. [https://www.gbv.de/dms/bs/toc/795057849.pdf Dissertation], Technische Universität Braunschweig (2014) (access on November 30, 2025)
|-valign="top"
|[9]
|Prager, J., Köppe, E. Bartholmai, M.: Früherkennung von Strukturschäden mittels geführter Lamb-Wellen. GMA/ITG-Fachtagung Sensoren und Messsysteme. Proceedings (2012) pp. 531–540
|-valign="top"
|[10]
|Schubert, L., Klesse,T., Weihnacht, B., Schulze, E., Lieske, U., Frankenstein, B.: Aktuelle Entwicklungsarbeiten zu aktiv angeregten geführten Wellen (Acousto-Ultrasonics) für SHM-Anwendungen. 20. Kolloquium Schallemission, DGZfP (2015) https://www.ndt.net/search/docs.php3?id=20941
|-valign="top"
|[11]
|Rau, E., Bamberg, J., Berwig, P.: Ultraschallprüfung an Turbinenschaufeln mittels Oberflächenwellen. DGZfP-Seminar FA Ultraschallprüfung (2015), Lecture No. 8; https://www.ndt.net/article/dgzfp-ut-2015/papers/8.pdf
|-valign="top"
|[12]
|Prager, J., Brackrock, D., Dohse, E., Gaal, M., Homann, T., Grezeszkowski, M.: Anwendung geführter Ultraschallwellen für die Prüfung von Klebeverbindungen. DGZfP-Dach Jahrestagung, Potsdam (2014)
|-valign="top"
|[13]
|Schiebold, K.: Zerstörungsfreie Werkstoffprüfung – Ultraschallprüfung. Springer, Berlin (2014), (ISBN 978-3-662-44699-7)
|}

==Weblink==

* Wikipedia – The free encyclopedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb_waves (access on February 25, 2026)

[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]

Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:42:24 GMT

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:42, 7 September 2026
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	* [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique \| Ultrasonic immersion bath technique]]		* [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique \| Ultrasonic immersion bath technique]]

	~~'''~~References~~'''~~		==References==

	{\|		{\|

Ultrasonic Weld Inspection

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:42:01 GMT

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:42, 7 September 2026
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	* [[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters \| Ultrasound – Elastic parameters]]		* [[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters \| Ultrasound – Elastic parameters]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	{\|		{\|

Ultrasonic Waves Reflection

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:41:38 GMT

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:41, 7 September 2026
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	\|-		\|-
	\|width="20px"\|		\|width="20px"\|
	\|width="500px"\|<math>R=\frac{W_{1}-W_{2}}{W_{1}+W_{2}}</math>		\|width="500px"\|<math>R=\frac{W_{2}-W_{1}}{W_{2}+W_{1}}</math>
	\|(2)		\|(2)
	\|}		\|}

	When using longitudinal waves with vertical sensors, a large part of the sound waves can also be reflected at the [[Phase Boundary Surface\|interface]] between the [[Ultrasonic Sensors\|sensor]] and the workpiece if the [[Surface\|surface]] is very rough and uneven and unsuitable coupling agents are used ('''Fig. 1b'''). This problem does not occur with the [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique\|immersion bath]] and [[Squirter Technique\|squirter techniques]] or when using [[Air Ultrasound\|air ultrasound]]. However, since a part of the sound is always reflected back into the sensor depending on the sound impedances, the influence on the transmission signal (SE) must be minimised by using suitable damping layers [5–9]. <br>		When using longitudinal waves with vertical sensors, a large part of the sound waves can also be reflected at the [[Phase Boundary Surface\|interface]] between the [[Ultrasonic Sensors\|sensor]] and the workpiece if the [[Surface\|surface]] is very rough and uneven and unsuitable coupling agents are used ('''Fig. 1b'''). This problem does not occur with the [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique\|immersion bath]] and [[Squirter Technique\|squirter techniques]] or when using [[Air-Ultrasound\|air-ultrasound]]. However, since a part of the sound is always reflected back into the sensor depending on the sound impedances, the influence on the transmission signal (SE) must be minimised by using suitable damping layers [5–9]. <br>
	By relating ''R'' to the [[Sound Pressure\|sound pressure]] ''P'', this characteristic value can take on positive or negative values, whereby a negative sign for ''R'' (acoustically soft medium) indicates the reversal of the phase compared to the incident wave. When sound waves strike flat boundary surfaces perpendicularly, no wave conversion occurs, and for identical media (''W''<sub>1</sub> = ''W''<sub>2</sub>), ''R'' = 0 and ''T'' or ''D'' = 1, i.e. there is unimpeded sound transmission.		By relating ''R'' to the [[Sound Pressure\|sound pressure]] ''P'', this characteristic value can take on positive or negative values, whereby a negative sign for ''R'' (acoustically soft medium) indicates the reversal of the phase compared to the incident wave. When sound waves strike flat boundary surfaces perpendicularly, no wave conversion occurs, and for identical media (''W''<sub>1</sub> = ''W''<sub>2</sub>), ''R'' = 0 and ''T'' or ''D'' = 1, i.e. there is unimpeded sound transmission.

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	* [[Sound Emission Experimental Conditions\|Sound emission experimental conditions]]		* [[Sound Emission Experimental Conditions\|Sound emission experimental conditions]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	{\|		{\|
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	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[4]		\|[4]
	\|Matthies, K. u. a.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS Media Verlag, Berlin (1998) 2nd Edition (ISBN 978-3-87155-940-2; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under M 44)		\|Matthies, K. u. a.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS Media Verlag, Berlin (1998) 2nd Edition (ISBN 978-3-87155-940-2; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 44)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[5]		\|[5]
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	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[6]		\|[6]
	\|Deutsch, M.; Platte, V.; Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung. Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (1997) (ISBN 3-540-62072-9; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under M 45)		\|Deutsch, M.; Platte, V.; Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung. Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (1997) (ISBN 3-540-62072-9; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 45)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[7]		\|[7]
	\|Steeb, S. (Eds.): Zerstörungsfreie Werkstück- und Werkstoffprüfung. Expert Publishing, Ehningen (1993), 2nd p. 253 (ISBN 3-8169-0964-7; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under M 42)		\|Steeb, S. (Eds.): Zerstörungsfreie Werkstück- und Werkstoffprüfung. Expert Publishing, Ehningen (1993), 2nd p. 253 (ISBN 3-8169-0964-7; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 42)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[8]		\|[8]
	\|Busse, G.: Non-destructive Polymer Testing. In: [[Grellmann, Wolfgang\|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler, Sabine\|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022) 3rd Edition, pp. 431–495 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book: ISBN 978-1-56990-805-5; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under A 22)		\|Busse, G.: Non-destructive Polymer Testing. In: [[Grellmann, Wolfgang\|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler, Sabine\|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022) 3rd Edition, pp. 431–495 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book: ISBN 978-1-56990-805-5; see [[AMK-Library]] under A 22)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[9]		\|[9]
	\|[[Bierögel, Christian\|Bierögel, C.]]: Lecture Notes: Materials Diagnostics – Hybrid Testing Methods. Vienna University of Technology (2015)		\|[[Bierögel, Christian\|Bierögel, C.]]: Lecture Notes: Materials Diagnostics – Hybrid Testing Methods. Vienna University of Technology (2015)
	\|}		\|}

			[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]

Ultrasonic Wall Thickness Measurement

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:41:10 GMT

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:41, 7 September 2026
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	==Technical requirements==		==Technical requirements==

	The most important practical applications of [[Ultrasound Testing\|ultrasonic testing technology]] are the [[Non-destructive Testing\|non-destructive characterisation]] of [[Material & Werkstoff\|materials]] for [[Errors\|defect]] detection, [[Ultrasonic Weld Inspection\|weld seam testing]] and the measurement of the thickness or wall thickness of [[Plastic Component\|components]] [1], some of which require special testing technology for the testing application.		The most important practical applications of [[Ultrasound Testing\|ultrasonic testing technology]] are the [[Non-destructive Testing (NDT)\|non-destructive characterisation]] of [[Material & Werkstoff\|materials]] for [[Errors\|defect]] detection, [[Ultrasonic Weld Inspection\|weld seam testing]] and the measurement of the thickness or wall thickness of [[Plastic Component\|components]] [1], some of which require special testing technology for the testing application.

	Ultrasonic wall thickness measurement is an established and industrially used testing method, which has been greatly simplified and improved in terms of measurement technology, particularly through digital technology, but still requires solid knowledge and practical experience on the part of the tester [1, 2].		Ultrasonic wall thickness measurement is an established and industrially used testing method, which has been greatly simplified and improved in terms of measurement technology, particularly through digital technology, but still requires solid knowledge and practical experience on the part of the tester [1, 2].

	For test objects that are not accessible from both sides, such as pipes or containers, which may also contain production media, wall thickness measurement is only possible using [[Non-destructive Polymer Testing\|non-destructive polymer testing]] methods, whereby ultrasonic wall thickness measurement has become established here, regardless of the material. The [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique\|pulse-echo technique]] with [[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors\|normal]] or [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors\|~~SE transducers~~]] is particularly relevant from a technical point of view, although [[Ultrasonic Transmission Technique\|ultrasonic transmission measurement technique]] is also applicable, but is preferred in laboratory operations and is used for [[Air-Ultrasound\|air-ultrasound]].		For test objects that are not accessible from both sides, such as pipes or containers, which may also contain production media, wall thickness measurement is only possible using [[Non-destructive Polymer Testing\|non-destructive polymer testing]] methods, whereby ultrasonic wall thickness measurement has become established here, regardless of the material. The [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique\|pulse-echo technique]] with [[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors\|normal]] or [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors\|S/E sensor]] is particularly relevant from a technical point of view, although [[Ultrasonic Transmission Technique\|ultrasonic transmission measurement technique]] is also applicable, but is preferred in laboratory operations and is used for [[Air-Ultrasound\|air-ultrasound]].

	==Physical fundamentals==		==Physical fundamentals==
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	\|}		\|}

	In addition, there is the system dead time and, in the case of small thicknesses, overlaps between the high-voltage pulse of the transmitter and the first back wall echo (RE), which means that no foot point can be determined for the transmitted echo. If multiple [[Reflection Sound Waves\|reflections]] occur between the [[Ultrasonic Sensors\|~~probe~~]] and the rear wall in homogeneous and isotropic materials, the multiple echo method ('''Fig. 1b''') can be used. In this case, the wall thickness is determined over several echoes, whereby the multiplication of the running path length must also be taken into account. One of the back wall echoes can then also be used as the starting point for the measurement. However, this preferred method can only be used when multiple echoes occur (homogeneous metallic materials) and is generally not usable in cases of high attenuation or strong scattering. For very thin walls and to suppress the transmission pulse, delay lines can also be used, which improve the close-range resolution and also allow applications on curved geometries (pipes or containers) [1–3]. In both cases, the measurement becomes much more complicated if there are corners and edges in the immediate vicinity of the measuring position [3, 4] and if there is severe erosive or corrosive damage to the rear wall. If [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors\|~~SE transducers~~]] are used for wall thickness measurement to increase the local resolution, a correction of the reverse path length is necessary, as the ultrasound is transmitted into the test object at an angle corresponding to the roof angle. When using the [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique\|immersion bath technique]] or delay line bodies, the respective interface echo (e.g. between the delay line and the test object surface) can also be included in the evaluation.		In addition, there is the system dead time and, in the case of small thicknesses, overlaps between the high-voltage pulse of the transmitter and the first back wall echo (RE), which means that no foot point can be determined for the transmitted echo. If multiple [[Reflection Sound Waves\|reflections]] occur between the [[Ultrasonic Sensors\|ultrasonic sensors]] and the rear wall in homogeneous and isotropic materials, the multiple echo method ('''Fig. 1b''') can be used. In this case, the wall thickness is determined over several echoes, whereby the multiplication of the running path length must also be taken into account. One of the back wall echoes can then also be used as the starting point for the measurement. However, this preferred method can only be used when multiple echoes occur (homogeneous metallic materials) and is generally not usable in cases of high attenuation or strong scattering. For very thin walls and to suppress the transmission pulse, delay lines can also be used, which improve the close-range resolution and also allow applications on curved geometries (pipes or containers) [1–3]. In both cases, the measurement becomes much more complicated if there are corners and edges in the immediate vicinity of the measuring position [3, 4] and if there is severe erosive or corrosive damage to the rear wall. If [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors\|S/E sensors]] are used for wall thickness measurement to increase the local resolution, a correction of the reverse path length is necessary, as the ultrasound is transmitted into the test object at an angle corresponding to the roof angle. When using the [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique\|immersion bath technique]] or delay line bodies, the respective interface echo (e.g. between the delay line and the test object surface) can also be included in the evaluation.

	==FreqScan evaluation method==		==FreqScan evaluation method==
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	==Equipment technology for ultrasonic wall thickness measurement==		==Equipment technology for ultrasonic wall thickness measurement==

	Compared to analogue measuring systems with [[A-Scan Technique\|A-scan technique]], modern digital wall thickness devices are small and handy, and the wall thickness can be read directly from the integrated monitor. These devices ('''Fig. 3a''') simplify calibration, can be switched from thickness to sound velocity measurement and, in the case of [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors\|SE sensors]], include correction of the path error, taking into account the respective roof angle. However, devices that include a digital display of the A-scan in addition to the alphanumeric display ('''Fig. 3b''') are preferable, as they allow the tester to check the correctness of the measurement. Regardless of these advantages, the influences of coupling agent thickness, corrosion on the rear wall, fluctuating contact pressure or the test temperature must of course also be taken into account, whereby modern [[Ultrasonic Sensors\|ultrasonic sensors]] often already have integrated temperature sensors [7].		Compared to analogue measuring systems with [[A-Scan Technique\|A-scan technique]], modern digital wall thickness devices are small and handy, and the wall thickness can be read directly from the integrated monitor. These devices ('''Fig. 3a''') simplify calibration, can be switched from thickness to sound velocity measurement and, in the case of [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors\|S/E sensors]], include correction of the path error, taking into account the respective roof angle. However, devices that include a digital display of the A-scan in addition to the alphanumeric display ('''Fig. 3b''') are preferable, as they allow the tester to check the [[Measured Value Accuracy\|correctness of the measurement]]. Regardless of these advantages, the influences of coupling agent thickness, corrosion on the rear wall, fluctuating contact pressure or the test temperature must of course also be taken into account, whereby modern [[Ultrasonic Sensors\|ultrasonic sensors]] often already have integrated temperature sensors [7].

	[[File:US_Wanddickenmessung-3.jpg\|500px]]		[[File:US_Wanddickenmessung-3.jpg\|500px]]
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	\|}		\|}

	In pipelines used in the chemical industry or in nuclear power plants, which form a significant part of the infrastructure, increased [[Material & Werkstoff\|material]] wear is recorded, regardless of the material used, particularly in the impact area ('''Fig. 4''') at pipe curvatures or bends and in the vicinity of welded joints (flow turbulence) when abrasive or erosive media are transported. In the case of metallic pipes, erosion or corrosive effects often occur here, while in the case of plastic pipes or containers, damage to the inliner occurs, which leads to exposure of the [[Fibre-reinforced Plastics#Types of reinforcing plastics\|reinforcing fibre]] and a reduction in the initial wall thickness ''d''<sub>0</sub> (see '''Fig. 4'''). With prescribed cyclical inspection (3 to 6 months) of the residual wall thickness, these pipe sections can be replaced prophylactically if the permissible residual wall thickness ''d''<sub>zul</sub> is known, thereby avoiding any consequential damage. If these measuring positions are difficult to access due to design conditions and/or thermal insulation, these [[Ultrasonic Sensors\|ultrasonic ~~transducers~~]] can also be installed in a stationary manner, analogous to the acoustic emission sensor technology used in nuclear power plants, and the wall thickness is determined permanently or cyclically at an identical position [8].		In pipelines used in the chemical industry or in nuclear power plants, which form a significant part of the infrastructure, increased [[Material & Werkstoff\|material]] wear is recorded, regardless of the material used, particularly in the impact area ('''Fig. 4''') at pipe curvatures or bends and in the vicinity of welded joints (flow turbulence) when abrasive or erosive media are transported. In the case of metallic pipes, erosion or corrosive effects often occur here, while in the case of plastic pipes or containers, damage to the inliner occurs, which leads to exposure of the [[Fibre-reinforced Plastics#Types of reinforcing plastics\|reinforcing fibre]] and a reduction in the initial wall thickness ''d''<sub>0</sub> (see '''Fig. 4'''). With prescribed cyclical inspection (3 to 6 months) of the residual wall thickness, these pipe sections can be replaced prophylactically if the permissible residual wall thickness ''d''<sub>zul</sub> is known, thereby avoiding any consequential damage. If these measuring positions are difficult to access due to design conditions and/or thermal insulation, these [[Ultrasonic Sensors\|ultrasonic sensors]] can also be installed in a stationary manner, analogous to the acoustic emission sensor technology used in nuclear power plants, and the wall thickness is determined permanently or cyclically at an identical position [8].

	A special form of thickness measurement is the determination of the layer thicknesses of paint coatings or plastic insulation on metallic base materials using ultrasound, which, however, requires a special measurement and evaluation methodology [3].		A special form of thickness measurement is the determination of the layer thicknesses of paint coatings or plastic insulation on metallic base materials using ultrasound, which, however, requires a special measurement and evaluation methodology [3].
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	* [[Sound Pressure\|Sound pressure]]		* [[Sound Pressure\|Sound pressure]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	{\|		{\|
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[1]		\|[1]
	\|Matthies, K. u. a.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS-Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2nd Edition (1998), (ISBN 3-87155-940-7; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under M 44)		\|Matthies, K. u. a.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS-Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2nd Edition (1998), (ISBN 3-87155-940-7; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 44)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[2]		\|[2]
	\|Deutsch, V., Platte, M., Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung – Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (2012), (ISBN 978-3-642-63864-0; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under M 45)		\|Deutsch, V., Platte, M., Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung – Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (2012), (ISBN 978-3-642-63864-0; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 45)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[3]		\|[3]
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	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[5]		\|[5]
	\|Sirch, C., Oluschinski, A., Bierögel, C., Grellmann, W.: Ultraschallprüfung von Kunststoffbauteilen. 12. Tagung „Problemseminar Deformation und Bruchverhalten von Kunststoffen“, Merseburg, June 24–26, 2009, Proceedings CD-ROM		\|Sirch, C., Oluschinski, A., [[Bierögel, Christian\|Bierögel, C.]], [[Grellmann, Wolfgang\|Grellmann, W.]]: Ultraschallprüfung von Kunststoffbauteilen. 12. Tagung „Problemseminar Deformation und Bruchverhalten von Kunststoffen“, Merseburg, June 24–26, 2009, Proceedings CD-ROM
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[6]		\|[6]
	\|Sirch, C., Oluschinski, A., Bierögel, C., Rufke, B., zur Horst-Meyer, S., Grellmann, W.: Ultraschall-Messungen an Grenzflächen in GfK-Thermoplast-Verbunden. 11. Tagung „Problemseminar Deformation und Bruchverhalten von Kunststoffen“, Merseburg, June 20–22, 2007, Proceedigs CD-ROM (ISBN 978-3-86010-918-2) pp. 429−430		\|Sirch, C., Oluschinski, A., Bierögel, C., Rufke, B., zur Horst-Meyer, S., [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.]: Ultraschall-Messungen an Grenzflächen in GfK-Thermoplast-Verbunden. 11. Tagung „Problemseminar Deformation und Bruchverhalten von Kunststoffen“, Merseburg, June 20–22, 2007, Proceedigs CD-ROM (ISBN 978-3-86010-918-2) pp. 429−430
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[7]		\|[7]
	\|zur Horst-Meyer, S.: SONOWALL – Wanddickenmessungen mit Ultraschall. DGZfP-Jahrestagung „Zerstörungsfreie Werkstoffprüfung“ (2010), Erfurt, P54 Download ~~als~~ pdf		\|zur Horst-Meyer, S.: SONOWALL – Wanddickenmessungen mit Ultraschall. DGZfP-Jahrestagung „Zerstörungsfreie Werkstoffprüfung“ (2010), Erfurt, P54 [http://jt2010.dgzfp.de/Portals/jt2010/BB/p54.pdf Download as pdf]
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[8]		\|[8]

File:SE-Probes Fig2.jpg

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:40:47 GMT

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File:SE-Probes Fig1.jpg

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:40:40 GMT

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Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:40:17 GMT

Created page with "{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Ultraschall-Sende(S)-Empfänger(E)-Prüfköpfe}} {{PSM_Infobox}} Ultrasonic transmitter(S)-receiver(E) sensors __FORCETOC__ ==General information== Ultrasonic S/E sensors, also known as transmitter/receiver sensors, consist of a transmitter unit and a receiver unit that are electrically and vibrationally separated, i.e. separate Piezoelectric Ceramic Transducer|piezoelectric transd..."

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{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Ultraschall-Sende(S)-Empfänger(E)-Prüfköpfe}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Ultrasonic transmitter(S)-receiver(E) sensors
__FORCETOC__

==General information==

Ultrasonic S/E sensors, also known as transmitter/receiver sensors, consist of a transmitter unit and a receiver unit that are electrically and vibrationally separated, i.e. separate [[Piezoelectric Ceramic Transducer|piezoelectric transducers]]. Such sensors are used when, due to the low thickness of the test piece or surface imperfections, the close-up resolution of the [[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors|standard sensor]] is insufficient even at increased frequencies or when using a delay line, i.e. the back wall or defect echoes cannot be separated from the transmission pulse in time. These sensors therefore contain two electrically and acoustically decoupled [[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors|standard sensors]] in one housing, resulting in a combination of the [[Ultrasonic Transmission Technique|transmission]] and [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique|pulse-echo methods]] for measurement purposes.

==Schematic setup of an S/E sensor==

Due to the necessary dual-channel design of the ultrasonic measuring system, the transmission pulse does not overlap with the reception echo in the display. This allows defects located just below the [[Surface|surface]] of the test piece to be detected or very accurate results to be achieved in wall thickness measurement [1, 2].

The two transducers, which operate continuously in the transmit or receive modes, are inclined at a certain angle to the normal or separation plane, which is referred to as the roof angle β ('''Fig. 1'''). Depending on the roof angle implemented, inclined delay lines of length l are glued under the [[Piezoelectric Ceramic Transducer|transducers]], resulting in maximum sensitivity in a specified depth range [1].

[[File:SE-Probes_Fig1.jpg|550px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px"|Schematic arrangement of an ultrasonic S/E sensor
|}

The delay lines correspond to wedges made of [[Plastics|plastics]] with good sound conductivity, such as polymethyl methacrylate ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PMMA) or polystyrene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PS). An [[Acoustic Properties|acoustic adaptation layer]] is usually installed between the [[Piezoelectric Ceramic Transducer|transducer]] and the attachment wedge. Its thickness corresponds to the quarter wavelength (''λ''/4) of the sensor, and serves in particular to adapt the impedance and optimise sound transmission between the transducer and the delay line on the transmitter and receiver side. In addition to a low reflection factor, a suitable damping body also provides high mechanical and acoustic damping of the S/E sensor [3]. If the transducers or delay wedges are only inclined by an angle β, these are referred to as [[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors|standard S/E sensors]]. If the transducers are additionally inclined by an angle γ (γ > β) in the 90° plane, then an angle S/E sensor is present, with which transverse waves can be generated in the test object. The conditions and statements defined under the term [[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors|angle beam sensor]] apply to the angle ''γ''.

The application or working range of S/E sensors is in the test piece area where the sound fields of the transmitter (S) and receiver (E) overlap ('''Fig. 2''')

[[File:SE-Probes_Fig2.jpg|550px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px"|Sound field of the ultrasonic S/E sensor (a) with large and small roof angle ''β'' and (b) sensitivity–distance diagram
|}

As can be seen in '''Fig. 2a''', the near-field resolution can be varied over a wide range by selecting the roof angle, the distance between the transmitter and receiver, and the length of the delay wedge, although this also affects the dead zone of the sensor. The sensitivity therefore varies with the path of the ultrasound l and can be represented graphically in the diagram corresponding to '''Fig. 2b'''. The dark red field marks the zone of maximum sensitivity, and the light red triangle marks the working range. With large roof angles, the ultrasound is already inclined and not perpendicular to the [[Surface|surface]] due to the design. As a result, an increase in the roof angle causes a so-called detour error, which is reflected in an increase in the transit time and thus, for example, in an error in the [[Ultrasonic Wall Thickness Measurement|wall thickness measurement]]. This error can be compensated for by [[Adjustment|adjusting]] the ultrasonic system or mathematically in digital devices.

In addition to the roof angle, the test frequency, the type and shape of the oscillator, the dimensions of the oscillator and the attachment wedge, and the distance between the transmitter and receiver also influence the quality and reliability of the test result [2, 4, 5].

==Examples of S/E sensor designs==

Examples of different S/E sensors are shown in '''Fig. 3''', where you can see the separate connections for the transmitter and receiver.

[[File:S_E_Pruefkoepfe-3.JPG|550px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px"|Examples of S/E test sensors (handheld test sensors) of different sizes and frequencies (a) from GE Measurement & Control Solutions, Alzenau, and (b) from GAZ-Prüftechnik GmbH, Alpen
|}

==See also==

* [[Ultrasound Testing|Ultrasound testing]]
* [[Ultrasonic Direct Coupling|Ultrasonic direct coupling]]
* [[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors|Ultrasonic composite sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Weld Inspection|Ultrasonic weld inspection]]
* [[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors|Ultrasonic standard sensors]]

==References==

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Steeb, S.: Zerstörungsfreie Werkstoffstück- und Werkstoffprüfung. 5th Edition, Expert Verlag, Renningen (2016), (ISBN 978-3-81693-261-1); 2nd Edition (1993) (ISBN 3-8169-0964-7; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 41)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|Matthies, K.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS-Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2nd Edition, (1998), (ISBN 3-87155-940-7; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 44)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|Deutsch, V., Platte, M., Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung – Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (1997), (ISBN 3-540-62072-9; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 45)
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|Schuster, V., Lach, M., Platte, M.: Die Qual der Wahl: Welcher Prüfkopf für welchen Einsatz. DGZfP-Jahrestagung „Zerstörungsfreie Werkstoffprüfung“ (2004), Salzburg, Österreich, Sonderdruck Karl Deutsch, SD 1/51
|-valign="top"
|[5]
|Krautkrämer, J.; Krautkrämer, H.: Werkstoffprüfung mit Ultraschall. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (2013) p. 43 (ISBN 978-3-662-10910-6)
|}

[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]

Ultrasonic Transmission Technique

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:39:55 GMT

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:39, 7 September 2026
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	==Options for coupling==		==Options for coupling==

	The transmission method with standard sensors generally also uses pulsed ultrasound with a specified pulse repetition frequency. [[Ultrasonic Direct Coupling\|Ultrasonic direct coupling]] can be achieved using special oils or greases, [[Air-Ultrasound\|air-ultrasound]] or the immersion bath technique using [[[Squirter Technique\|~~water coupling~~]] ('''Fig. 1'''). Due to the fact that the test object must be accessible from both sides for this test method to be used, the procedure is mainly used in laboratories in practice.		The transmission method with standard sensors generally also uses pulsed ultrasound with a specified pulse repetition frequency. [[Ultrasonic Direct Coupling\|Ultrasonic direct coupling]] can be achieved using special oils or greases, [[Air-Ultrasound\|air-ultrasound]] or the immersion bath technique using [[Squirter Technique\|Squirter technique]] ('''Fig. 1'''). Due to the fact that the test object must be accessible from both sides for this test method to be used, the procedure is mainly used in laboratories in practice.

	[[File:Ultraschall-Durchschallungs-Technik-1.jpg]]		[[File:Ultraschall-Durchschallungs-Technik-1.jpg]]
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	\|- valign="top"		\|- valign="top"
	\|width="50px"\|'''Fig. 3''':		\|width="50px"\|'''Fig. 3''':
	\|width="600px"\|Schematic presentation of [[A-Scan\|A-scans]] in the transmission method with standard sensors with (a) ideal transmission, (b) total coverage of the back-wall echo (RE), (c) partial coverage of the backwall echo, and (d) intensity reduction due to porosity		\|width="600px"\|Schematic presentation of [[A-Scan Technique\|A-scans]] in the transmission method with standard sensors with (a) ideal transmission, (b) total coverage of the back-wall echo (RE), (c) partial coverage of the backwall echo, and (d) intensity reduction due to porosity
	\|}		\|}

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	\|- valign="top"		\|- valign="top"
	\|width="50px"\|'''Fig. 4''':		\|width="50px"\|'''Fig. 4''':
	\|width="600px"\|Schematic representation of [[A-Scan\|A-scans]] in the ultrasonic testing method with [[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors\|angle sensors]] for (a) test objects with and without horizontal defects and (b) test objects with vertical defects of varying depths using the tandem technique		\|width="600px"\|Schematic representation of [[A-Scan Technique\|A-scans]] in the ultrasonic testing method with [[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors\|angle sensors]] for (a) test objects with and without horizontal defects and (b) test objects with vertical defects of varying depths using the tandem technique
	\|}		\|}

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	==See also==		==See also==

	* ~~Ultrasonic–Elastic~~ parameters		* [[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters\|Ultrasonic – Elastic parameters]]
	* Ultrasonic birefringence		* [[Ultrasonic Birefringence\|Ultrasonic birefringence]]
	* ~~Ultraschall~~ modulation		* [[Ultrasonic Modulation\|Ultrasonic modulation]]
	* Ultrasonic phased array sensors		* [[Ultrasonic Phased Array Sensors\|Ultrasonic phased array sensors]]
	* Ultrasonic composite sensors		* [[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors\|Ultrasonic composite sensors]]

			==References==
	~~'''~~References~~'''~~

	{\|		{\|
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[1]		\|[1]
	\|Deutsch, V., Platte, M., Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung – Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (2012), (ISBN 978-3-642-63864-0; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under M 45)		\|Deutsch, V., Platte, M., Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung – Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (2012), (ISBN 978-3-642-63864-0; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 45)
	\|-valign="top"		\|-valign="top"
	\|[2]		\|[2]
	\|Matthies, K.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS Media GmbH, Berlin, 2nd Edition, (1998), (ISBN 3-87155-940-7; see [[~~AMK-Büchersammlung\|~~AMK-Library]] under M 44)		\|Matthies, K.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS Media GmbH, Berlin, 2nd Edition, (1998), (ISBN 3-87155-940-7; see [[AMK-Library]] under M 44)
	\|}		\|}

	[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]		[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]

File:TOFD-2.jpg

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:39:23 GMT

Oluschinski uploaded File:TOFD-2.jpg

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File:TOFD-Fig1.jpg

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Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique

Oluschinski — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 10:38:42 GMT

Created page with "{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Ultraschall-Laufzeit-Beugungsverfahren (TOFD)}} {{PSM_Infobox}} Ultrasonic time-of-diffraction (TOFD) technique __FORCETOC__ ==General== The time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) method is an ultrasonic measurement method used in particular to test steel components for cracks and volume defects. It is used for quality control of Ultrasonic Weld Inspecti..."

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{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Ultraschall-Laufzeit-Beugungsverfahren (TOFD)}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Ultrasonic time-of-diffraction (TOFD) technique
__FORCETOC__

==General==

The time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) method is an [[Ultrasound Testing|ultrasonic measurement method]] used in particular to test steel components for [[Crack|cracks]] and volume defects. It is used for quality control of [[Ultrasonic Weld Inspection|weld seams]] both in outgoing goods inspection and in field tests on [[Plastic Component|components]] during operation. A special feature of this method is the presentation of the test result, which allows the depth and geometry of the defect to be determined immediately. Although this testing technique is also suitable for [[Plastics|plastics]] in principle, no publications on this subject are known in the technical literature to date.

==Measurement setup==

Two identical [[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors|angle beam sensors]] are used, which are aligned with each other in such a way that the sound fields of the sensors overlap in the component volume, allowing all potential defects to be ‘illuminated’ ('''Fig. 1'''). The ultrasonic transducers are shown in '''Fig. 1''' as [[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors|standard sensors]] glued onto lead wedges. In special angle sensors, this design is arranged in a housing. The angle of incidence requires a corresponding distance between the sensors in order to be able to sound through the test sample volume. In addition to the angle of incidence, this distance depends on the structure of the sound field, which is determined by the combination of transducer and damping body, but also on the sound path in the lead-in distance that realises the angle of incidence.

[[File:TOFD-Fig1.jpg|450px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px"|Principle diagram of the TOFD method [1]
|}

==Functionality==

The measuring method works according to the [[Ultrasonic Transmission Technique|transmission principle]], i.e. one angle sensor transmits the sound (transmitter) and the other receives the sound waves reflected in the volume (receiver). Since the two sensors are aligned so that the reflection signal (back-wall reflection) can be registered by the receiving sensor, this signal limits the measuring range on the time axis upwards (HF images in '''Fig. 1''' below). The lower limit of the measuring range is marked by the lateral waves, whose [[Sound Velocity|sound velocity]] corresponds to that of the longitudinal waves.

The measuring range of the method, in which defects can be detected, lies between these two limits. As is known from wave optics, [[Crack|cracks]], delaminations and discontinuities represent diffraction obstacles and starting points for elementary waves. These sound waves can be registered by the receiver and displayed in the [[HF-Scan|HF-scan]]. As an example, '''Fig. 1''' shows a volume crack running vertically through the tested weld seam.

==Evaluation==

The TOFD measurement signal shown in '''Fig. 1''', which is recorded from a weld seam, is usually recorded with simultaneous indication of the path information. For this purpose, both [[Ultrasonic Sensors|ultrasonic test sensors]] are connected to each other at a fixed distance and moved parallel to the weld seam on a trolley with an incremental encoder (tandem arrangement). This results in a three-dimensional (‘transmission’) image with the representation of the time axis (vertical) and the distance travelled or the horizontal position with a grey value coding of the peak amplitudes ('''Fig. 2''').

[[File:TOFD-2.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px"|Example of a three-dimensional TOFD measurement signal [2]
|}

The lateral wave and the reflected back-wall signal in '''Fig. 2''' represent the boundaries of the TOFD image. Between these two signals, the diffraction signal originating from a material defect can be seen in the right half of the image. If the geometries and the angles of incidence are known, the defect depths can then be calculated.

==Summary==

The ultrasonic time-of-flight diffraction technique is a testing method used to determine the condition of weld seams both qualitatively and quantitatively. It can be used to determine the geometry and size of defects in welds. This method is also suitable for assessing corrosion in pipes [3] and is standardised for other applications in [[Non-destructive Testing (NDT)|non-destructive testing]] [4–7].

==See also==

* [[Imaging Ultrasonic Testing|Imaging ultrasonic testing]]
* [[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors|Ultrasonic composite sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Direct Coupling|Ultrasonic direct coupling]]
* [[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters|Ultrasound – Elastic parameters]]
* [[Ultrasonic Phased Array Sensors|Ultrasonic phased array sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors|Ultrasonic transmitter(S)-receiver(E) sensors]]

==References==

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|https://www.olympus-ims.com/de/ultrasonic-transducers/tofd/ (access on January 26, 2026)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|http://www.autsolutions.net/ndt-resources/tofd/ (access on January 26, 2026)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|Spies, M., Dillhöfer, A., Müller, W., Rieder, H., Schmitz, V.: [https://www.ndt.net/search/docs.php3?id=15601 SAFT, TOFD, Phased Array – Klassische Anwendungen und neuere Entwicklungen der Ultraschall-Bildgebung]. Seminar des Fachausschusses Ultraschallprüfung der DGZfP (DGZfP UT 2013)
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|ISO 16828 (2025-07): Non-destructive Testing – Ultrasonic Testing – Time-of-Flight Diffraction Technique for Detection and Sizing of Discontinuities
|-valign="top"
||[5]
|ISO 10863 (2020-09): Non-destructive Testing of Welds – Ultrasonic Testing – Use of Time-of-Flight Diffraction Technique (TOFD)
|-valign="top"
|[6]
|DIN EN 583-6 (2009-03): Non-destructive Testing – Ultrasonic Examination – Part 6: Time-of-Flight Diffraction Technique as a Method for Detection and Sizing Discontinuities (wthdrawn; replaced by DIN EN ISO 16828 (2025-07))
|-valign="top"
|[7]
|ISO 15626 (2018-07): Non-destructive Testing of Welds – Time-of-Flight Diffraction Technique (TOFD) – Acceptance Levels
|}

[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]

File:US Standard Sensors-Fig6.jpg

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File:US Standard Sensors-Fig5.jpg

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