Encyclopedia of plastics testing - User contributions [en]

Radusch, Hans-Joachim

2026-04-09T09:04:32Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Radusch, Hans-Joachim}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Radusch, Hans-Joachim

[[file:Radusch.jpg|150px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig.:''':
|width="600px" |Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Hans-Joachim Radusch
|}

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Hans-Joachim Radusch (1949 – 2026), born on February 2, 1949 in Weißenfels, was a German materials scientist specializing in [[Material Science & Plastics|polymer materials technology]] and polymer processing.

Hans-Joachim Radusch studied process engineering/polymer materials technology at the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technische_Hochschule_Leuna-Merseburg Technical University Leuna-Merseburg] from 1967 to 1971 and obtained his doctoral degree (Dr.-Ing.) in 1975 with a thesis on the mathematical modelling of the extrusion process. After a subsequent three-year period working in industry, he returned to the Technical University of Leuna-Merseburg, where he sharpened his profile in the field of processing and modification of [[Plastics | polymer materials]]. He habilitated 1985 on the subject of polyolefin-based [[Polymer Blend|polymer blends]]. In 1989, Hans-Joachim Radusch was appointed as a full Professor of Materials Engineering (Polymers) at the Technical University Leuna-Merseburg, and in 1994 he was appointed as a full Professor of Plastics Engineering at the [https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg].

His scientific work focused on the investigation of structure/morphology ̶̶ property relationships of [[Polymer|polymer]] [[Material & Werkstoff|materials]] and in particular [[Polymer Blend|polymer blends]] and [[Layer Silicate-reinforced Polymers|nanocomposites]]. His work on rheological-thermodynamic science-based morphology formation in heterogeneous polymer systems established the basis for the development of various modern polymer materials, such as dynamic vulcanizates, shape memory polymers or nanoparticle-filled elastomers and thermoplastic polymer blends. The characterization of the processing-related formation of the [[Microscopic Structure|structure]] and morphology of polymer materials as well as the resulting application-specific properties in crystallizable [[Bio-Plastics|biopolymers]] reflects a further facet of his scientific work.

From 2000 to 2013, Hans-Joachim Radusch headed the Institute of Materials Science and the Institute of Materials Technology, respectively, at the Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, and he was Managing Director of the Plastics Competence Centre Halle-Merseburg (KKZ Halle-Merseburg) which was founded in 2007, until 2013. He co-founded the [http://www.ipw-merseburg.de/ Institut für Polymerwerkstoffe e.V. Merseburg] (1992) and [https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de/en/ Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg] (2001) as affiliated institutes of [https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg] and [https://www.hs-merseburg.de/international/ Merseburg University of Applied Sciences], respectively, as well as the [http://amk-merseburg.de/ Akademie Mitteldeutsche Kunststoffinnovationen] (AMK; 2007). Prof. Radusch was Vice President of the AMK from 2011 to 2016, and he is a honorary member of this institution since 2016 in recognition of his commitment to the development of [[Material Science & Plastics|polymer science]] and plastics technology.

From 1999 until his retirement in 2014, Prof. Radusch was a member of the [https://www.wak-kunststofftechnik.de Scientific Working Group of University Professors of Polymer Technology (WAK)].

Hans-Joachim Radusch was highly committed to international cooperation with foreign universities and, in addition to scientific exchange, particularly he promoted the involvement of students in international cooperation. He acted as Representative of Germany in the [https://www.tpps.org/ Polymer Processing Society (PPS)] from 2003 to 2017.

'''Selected articles in specialised books'''

*Radusch, H.-J., Ding, J., Akovali, G.: Compatibilization of Heterogeneous Polymer Mixtures from the Plastics Waste Streams. In: Akovali, G. et al. (Eds.): Frontiers in the Science and Technology of Polymer Recycling. Kluver Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London (1998) 153–190 (ISBN 0-7923-5190-8)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Morphology Development During Processing of Recycled Polymers. In: Akovali, G. et al. (Eds.): Frontiers in the Science and Technology of Polymer Recycling. Kluver Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London (1998) 191–214 (ISBN 0-7923-5190-8)

*Radusch, H.-J., Androsch, R.: Blends Based on Poly (Butylene Terephthalate), In: Fakirov, S. (Ed.): Handbook of Thermoplastic Polyesters PET, PBT, PEN: Homopolymers, Copolymers, Blends and Composites. Wiley VCH Weinheim Berlin (2002) 895–922 (ISBN 3-527-30113-5)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Phase Morphology of Dynamically Vulcanized Thermoplastic Vulcanizates. In: Harrats, C., Thomas, S. and Groeninckx, G. (Eds.): Micro and Nanostructured Multiphase Polymer Blend Systems. Marcel Decker, New York (2005) 295–330 (ISBN 978-0849-3373-45)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Bestimmung verarbeitungsrelevanter Eigenschaften. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Munich Vienna (2022), 3rd Edition, pp. 39–70 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book: ISBN 978-1-56990-807-5; ePub ISBN 978-1-56990-808-2; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 22)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Unconventional Processing methods for Poly (hydroxybutyrate). In: Fakirov, S., Bhattacharyya, D. (Eds.): Handbook of Engineering Biopolymers. Hanser Publ. Munich, Cincinatti (2007) 717–746 (ISBN-10: 3446405917)

*Radusch, H.-J., Sakai, T.: New Insights into Morphology Development of Nanofiller Modified Polymers and Polymer Blends by Correlation of Imaging Methods and online Measured Electrical Conductance (I & II), Plastics Age (Japan) 57(2011)12, 78–87 & 58(2012)1, 74–83

*Focke, W. W., Radusch, H.-J. (Eds.): Engineering of Polymers and Chemical Complexity. Apple Academic Press, Toronto, New Jersey (2014) (ISBN 978-1-926895-87-1)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Rheologie – Essentielles Instrument der Polymerwerkstoffentwicklung. In: Merseburger Beiträge zur Geschichte der chemischen Industrie Mitteldeutschlands. 22 (2017) 1, 38–51 (ISBN 978-3-942703-83-3)

The editors of the encyclopaedia would like to thank Prof. H.-J. Radusch, [https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg] and [https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de/en/ Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg] for numerous guest contributions:

* [[Elongational Viscosity|Elongational viscosity]]
* [[Capillary Rheometer | Capillary rheometer]]
* [[Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension | Surface tension and interfacial tension]]
* [[Pourability]]
* [[Rotational Rheometer|Rotational rheometer]]
* [[Melt Mass-Flow Rate | Melt mass-flow rate]]
* [[Bulk Density|Bulk density]]
* [[Repose Angle|Repose angle]]
* [[Rheometry]]
* [[Materials Science | Materials science]]
* [[Materials Technology & Materials Science | Materials technology & Materials science]]

==Weblinks==
*Forschungsportal Sachsen-Anhalt: [https://forschung-sachsen-anhalt.de/pl/radusch-57169 Prof. Dr. Hans-Joachim Radusch]
*Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Zentrum Ingenieurwissenschaften. Kunststofftechnik: [https://www.kunststofftechnik.uni-halle.de https://www.kunststofftechnik.uni-halle.de]
*Akademie Mitteldeutsche Kunststoffinnovationen (AMK): [http://www.amk-merseburg.de/ http://www.amk-merseburg.de/]
*Institut für Polymerwerkstoffe e. V. Merseburg (IPW): [https://www.ipw-merseburgd.de/ https://www.ipw-merseburg.de/]
*Technische Hochschule Leuna-Merseburg (THLM): [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technische_Hochschule_Leuna-Merseburg https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technische_Hochschule_Leuna-Merseburg]

[[Category:Material Scientists Polymer Scientists|Material Scientists/Polymer Scientists]]

Radusch, Hans-Joachim

2026-04-09T07:32:26Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Radusch, Hans-Joachim}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Radusch, Hans-Joachim

[[file:Radusch.jpg|150px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig.:''':
|width="600px" |Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Hans-Joachim Radusch
|}

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Hans-Joachim Radusch (1949 – 2026), born on February 2, 1949 in Weißenfels, was a German materials scientist specializing in [[Material Science & Plastics|polymer materials technology]] and polymer processing.

Hans-Joachim Radusch studied process engineering/polymer materials technology at the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technische_Hochschule_Leuna-Merseburg Technical University Leuna-Merseburg] from 1967 to 1971 and obtained his doctoral degree (Dr.-Ing.) in 1975 with a thesis on the mathematical modelling of the extrusion process. After a subsequent three-year period working in industry, he returned to the Technical University of Leuna-Merseburg, where he sharpened his profile in the field of processing and modification of [[Plastics | polymer materials]]. He habilitated 1985 on the subject of polyolefin-based [[Polymer Blend|polymer blends]]. In 1989, Hans-Joachim Radusch was appointed as a full Professor of Materials Engineering (Polymers) at the Technical University Leuna-Merseburg, and in 1994 he was appointed as a full Professor of Plastics Engineering at the [https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg].

His scientific work focused on the investigation of structure/morphology ̶̶ property relationships of [[Polymer|polymer]] [[Material & Werkstoff|materials]] and in particular [[Polymer Blend|polymer blends]] and [[Layer Silicate-reinforced Polymers|nanocomposites]]. His work on rheological-thermodynamic science-based morphology formation in heterogeneous polymer systems established the basis for the development of various modern polymer materials, such as dynamic vulcanizates, shape memory polymers or nanoparticle-filled elastomers and thermoplastic polymer blends. The characterization of the processing-related formation of the [[Microscopic Structure|structure]] and morphology of polymer materials as well as the resulting application-specific properties in crystallizable [[Bio-Plastics|biopolymers]] reflects a further facet of his scientific work.

From 2000 to 2013, Hans-Joachim Radusch headed the Institute of Materials Science and the Institute of Materials Technology, respectively, at the Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, and he was Managing Director of the Plastics Competence Centre Halle-Merseburg (KKZ Halle-Merseburg) which was founded in 2007, until 2013. He co-founded the [http://www.ipw-merseburg.de/ Institut für Polymerwerkstoffe e.V. Merseburg] (1992) and [https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de/en/ Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg] (2001) as affiliated institutes of [https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg] and [https://www.hs-merseburg.de/international/ Merseburg University of Applied Sciences], respectively, as well as the [http://amk-merseburg.de/ Akademie Mitteldeutsche Kunststoffinnovationen] (AMK; 2007). Prof. Radusch was Vice President of the AMK from 2011 to 2016, and he is a honorary member of this institution since 2016 in recognition of his commitment to the development of [[Material Science & Plastics|polymer science]] and plastics technology.

From 1999 until his retirement in 2014, Prof. Radusch was a member of the [https://www.wak-kunststofftechnik.de Scientific Working Group of University Professors of Polymer Technology (WAK)].

Hans-Joachim Radusch was highly committed to international cooperation with foreign universities and, in addition to scientific exchange, particularly he promoted the involvement of students in international cooperation. He acted as Representative of Germany in the [https://www.tpps.org/ Polymer Processing Society (PPS)] from 2003 to 2017.

'''Selected articles in specialised books'''

*Radusch, H.-J., Ding, J., Akovali, G.: Compatibilization of Heterogeneous Polymer Mixtures from the Plastics Waste Streams. In: Akovali, G. et al. (Eds.): Frontiers in the Science and Technology of Polymer Recycling. Kluver Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London (1998) 153–190 (ISBN 0-7923-5190-8)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Morphology Development During Processing of Recycled Polymers. In: Akovali, G. et al. (Eds.): Frontiers in the Science and Technology of Polymer Recycling. Kluver Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London (1998) 191–214 (ISBN 0-7923-5190-8)

*Radusch, H.-J., Androsch, R.: Blends Based on Poly (Butylene Terephthalate), In: Fakirov, S. (Ed.): Handbook of Thermoplastic Polyesters PET, PBT, PEN: Homopolymers, Copolymers, Blends and Composites. Wiley VCH Weinheim Berlin (2002) 895–922 (ISBN 3-527-30113-5)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Phase Morphology of Dynamically Vulcanized Thermoplastic Vulcanizates. In: Harrats, C., Thomas, S. and Groeninckx, G. (Eds.): Micro and Nanostructured Multiphase Polymer Blend Systems. Marcel Decker, New York (2005) 295–330 (ISBN 978-0849-3373-45)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Bestimmung verarbeitungsrelevanter Eigenschaften. In: Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Munich Vienna (2022), 3rd Edition, pp. 39–70 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book: ISBN 978-1-56990-807-5; ePub ISBN 978-1-56990-808-2; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 22)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Unconventional Processing methods for Poly (hydroxybutyrate). In: Fakirov, S., Bhattacharyya, D. (Eds.): Handbook of Engineering Biopolymers. Hanser Publ. Munich, Cincinatti (2007) 717–746 (ISBN-10: 3446405917)

*Radusch, H.-J., Sakai, T.: New Insights into Morphology Development of Nanofiller Modified Polymers and Polymer Blends by Correlation of Imaging Methods and online Measured Electrical Conductance (I & II), Plastics Age (Japan) 57(2011)12, 78–87 & 58(2012)1, 74–83

*Focke, W. W., Radusch, H.-J. (Eds.): Engineering of Polymers and Chemical Complexity. Apple Academic Press, Toronto, New Jersey (2014) (ISBN 978-1-926895-87-1)

*Radusch, H.-J.: Rheologie – Essentielles Instrument der Polymerwerkstoffentwicklung. In: Merseburger Beiträge zur Geschichte der chemischen Industrie Mitteldeutschlands. 22 (2017) 1, 38–51 (ISBN 978-3-942703-83-3)

The editors of the encyclopaedia would like to thank Prof. H.-J. Radusch, [https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg] and [https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de/en/ Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg] for numerous guest contributions:

* [[Elongational Viscosity|Elongational viscosity]]
* [[Capillary Rheometer | Capillary rheometer]]
* [[Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension | Surface tension and interfacial tension]]
* [[Pourability]]
* [[Rotational Rheometer|Rotational rheometer]]
* [[Melt Mass-Flow Rate | Melt mass-flow rate]]
* [[Bulk Density|Bulk density]]
* [[Repose Angle|Repose angle]]
* [[Rheometry]]
* [[Materials Science | Materials science]]
* [[Materials Technology & Materials Science | Materials technology & Materials science]]

[[Category:Material Scientists Polymer Scientists|Material Scientists/Polymer Scientists]]

Ultrasound Testing

2026-03-30T10:27:35Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Ultraschallprüfung}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Ultrasound testing
__FORCETOC__

==History of ultrasound==

Flaw detection based on ultrasound is one of the oldest [[Non-destructive Testing (NDT) | non-destructive testing methods]] alongside X-ray gross structure analysis. Following the discovery of the [[Piezoelectric Force Transducer|piezoelectric effect]] (1880–1881) by the Curie brothers for measuring and generating non-stationary pressures and vibrations, the beginnings of the technical utilisation of ultrasound can be dated to around 1940. It was recognised that ultrasound interacts with the workpiece to be tested and reacts with a change in intensity and transit time. In 1942, the technical foundations were laid for time-of-flight measurement with separate transmitter and receiver sensors in through-transmission mode (Trostzange) and later for pulse-echo technology. In the years 1949–1950, Krautkrämer, Hürth, developed the first analogue ultrasonic testing device for non-destructive fault detection using [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique | pulse-echo ultrasonic technique]]. In 1973, Karl Deutsch released the first device with a digital display and in 1982 the Echograph with an integrated microprocessor.

Following the development of angle beam sensors (approx. 1952) and [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensor | transmitter-receiver sensors]] (approx. 1957), welded joints and thin components could be analysed for specific manufacturing or processing-related defects. The development of [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique | ultrasonic immersion bath technology]] using imaging ultrasound can be dated to around 1970 and squirter technology and [[Air-Ultrasound | air-ultrasound]] to around 1980 [1, 2]. More recent developments in digital testing technology, phased array technology, the TOFD testing and evaluation method (Time of Flight Diffraction Technique) or guided waves prove that the physical limits of ultrasonic testing technology are far from exhausted.

==Ultrasonic testing technology==

Ultrasonic testing is an active acoustic testing method in which ultrasonic waves (longitudinal or transverse waves) are transmitted into a test piece using one or more sensors (sensor field) to detect internal defects (imperfections) or determine geometric dimensions (wall thickness). Using a second sensor (receiver in through-transmission technology) or after switching the transmitter to receive ([[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique|pulse-echo technology]]), the sound waves, which have changed in transit time, frequency and intensity, are received and further processed for display purposes, utilising the inverse piezoelectric effect.

Ultrasonic testing, known in medicine as sonography, is based on the use of ultrasonic waves with a frequency > 20 kHz, whereby technical applications use the frequency range from approx. 100 kHz to 100 MHz. As the sound waves propagate in different media at different ultrasound velocities (see: [[Ultrasonic Runtime Measurement | ultrasonic runtime measurement]]) and are reflected, shadowed, refracted or scattered and weakened at media interfaces with different sound impedance (air, water, metal), these physical effects can be used to detect defects or imperfections (blowholes, inclusions), whereby generally only defects that are greater than half the wavelength (''λ''/2) are recognisable. These methods can be used to determine the type and size of defects based on known target values and the depth of the discontinuity in the test piece can be determined using time-of-flight measurement. However, due to different acoustic impedances at external interfaces, coupling agents (oil, water) are usually required to introduce the ultrasound into the test piece, which minimise the [[Ultrasonic Waves Reflection | reflection]] of the ultrasound at the [[Surface|surface]] [3−6] or improve the [[Transmission Sound Waves|transmission]] of sound waves into the solid.

==Ultrasonic sensors==

Depending on the application and type of wave, different [[Ultrasonic Sensors|ultrasonic sensors]] are used in practice:

* [[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors|Standard sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors|Angle sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensor | Transmitter (S)-receiver (E) sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors|Composite sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Shock Wave Sensors|Shock wave sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Sensors|Immersion bath sensors]]
* [[Ultrasonic Phased Array Sensors|Phased array sensors]]

==Imaging visualisation==

The simplest display method in ultrasonic testing is the [[A-Scan Technique|A-scan]], which represents the square of the [[HF-Scan|HF-scan]]. Scanning imaging test methods ([[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique | immersion bath]], phased array technology or air ultrasound) can be used to generate the [[B-Scan Technique|B-]], [[C-Scan Technique|C-]] and [[D-Scan Technique|D-scan]] or the [[F-Scan Technique|F-scan]] with significantly improved informative value through frequency-related evaluation. Special inspection and evaluation techniques such as [[Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique|TOFD]] (time-of-flight diffraction technique) or SAFT (Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique) are also available.

In principle, ultrasonic testing is standardised in ISO 16810 and the terminology used is standardised in DIN EN 1330-4, whereby special standards apply for the various applications on [[Ultrasonic Weld Inspection|welded joints]], forgings or [[Ultrasonic Wall Thickness Measurement | wall thickness measurement]], although mostly only for metallic materials [7, 8]. There are currently no binding standards for ultrasonic testing of [[Plastics | plastics]].

==Qualification of ultrasonic inspectors==

A personnel certification (DPZ certificate), usually from the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Research_Foundation German Society for Non-Destructive Testing – DGZfP], is required to carry out ultrasonic testing and is valid for 5 years for a specific testing method [9]. There are 3 qualification levels 1 to 3 (Level) for ultrasonic testing UT, which are also adapted to the various areas of application (e.g. aerospace industry, welding technology or cast part and pipe production).

==See also==

* [[Non-destructive Polymer Testing | Non-destructive polymer testing]]
* [[Acoustic Properties | Acoustic properties]]
* [[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters | Ultrasound – Elastic parameters]]
* [[Air-Ultrasound | Air-ultrasound]]
* [[Ultrasonic Runtime Measurement | Ultrasound runtime measurement]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Husarek, V., Castel, J. G.: [https://www.ndt.net/article/dgzfp01/papers/v03/v03.htm Beitrag zur Geschichte der Ultraschallprüfung in Deutschland und Frankreich]. DGZfP-Jahrestagung „Zerstörungsfreie Werkstoffprüfung“ 2001, Sofranell, Frankreich, Proceedings 75-CD
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|Guicking, D.: Erwin Meyer – Ein bedeutender deutscher Akustiker – Biographische Notizen. Universitätsdrucke, Universitätsverlag, Göttingen (2012), ([http://www.guicking.de/dieter/Erwin-Meyer.pdf http://www.guicking.de/dieter/Erwin-Meyer.pdf]) (accessed on 26/05/2025)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|Krautkrämer, J., Krautkrämer H.: Werkstoffprüfung mit Ultraschall. Springer, Berlin (1986), (ISBN 978-3-662-10909-0)
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|Deutsch, V., Platte, M., Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung – Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin (1997), (ISBN 3-540-62072-9; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under M 45)
|-valign="top"
|[5]
|Matthies, K. u. a.: Dickenmessung mit Ultraschall. DVS-Verlag GmbH, 2nd Edition, Berlin (1998), (ISBN 3-87155-940-7; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under M 44)
|-valign="top"
|[6]
|Schiebold, K.: Zerstörungsfreie Werkstoffprüfung – Ultraschallprüfung. Springer, Berlin (2014), (ISBN 978-3-662-44699-7)
|-valign="top"
|[7]
|ISO 16810 (2024-10): Non-destructive Testing – Ultrasonic Testing – General Principles
|-valign="top"
|[8]
|DIN EN 1330-4 (2010-05): Non-destructive Testing – Terminology – Part 4: Terms Used in Ultrasonic Testing (withdrawn; replaced by ISO 5577 (2025-09-Draft))
|-valign="top"
|[9]
|ISO 9712 (2021-12): Non-destructive Testing – Qualification and Certification of NDT Personnel
|-valign="top"
|}

[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]
[[Category:Velocity]]

File:Microplastics-1.jpg

2026-01-23T06:52:49Z

Oluschinski: Oluschinski uploaded a new version of File:Microplastics-1.jpg

Microplastic & Nanoplastic

2026-01-23T06:52:09Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Mikroplastik und Nanoplastik}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Microplastic & Nanoplastic (Authors: Prof. Dr. Vasiliki-Maria Archodoulaki und Dr. Lisa Schardt)
__FORCETOC__

==Microplastics==

===General remarks===

Microplastics are a technically and ecologically relevant class of [[Polymer|polymer]] particles. They have been the subject of increased research in recent years, after being first described more than 20 years ago [1, 2]. Numerous questions regarding their origin, occurrence and effects remain unanswered and are the subject of current research. The occurrence of microplastics in marine systems is comparatively well documented [3]. However, less is known about terrestrial and atmospheric environmental compartments and consumer goods such as food [4]. The potential effects on humans are also being investigated, but have not yet been adequately quantified [5]. Even less data is available on nanoplastics, a collective term for even smaller plastic particles [6].

===Definitions===

There is no uniform and universally accepted definition of microplastics or nanoplastics. Most scientific publications use an upper size limit of 5 mm for microplastics. Particles < 100 nm [7] or < 1 µm [6] are often classified as nanoplastics. However, the lower size limit is often determined by the resolution of the analytical method used.

Regulatory definitions:

* '''ECHA (European Chemicals Agency):''' Microplastics comprise particles with a maximum size of 0.1 µm to 5 mm in any direction. An additional category includes fibrous particles with a maximum length of > 5 mm to < 15 mm and an aspect ratio > 3 [8].
* '''EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency):''' Microplastics are plastic particles with a size of 1 nm to 5 mm that have a negative impact on the environment and human health.

There are other definitions in the literature with different upper limits, e.g. 2 mm [9] or 1 mm [5, 10]. This lack of standardisation makes it difficult to compare study results.

==Classification and origin==

Microplastics are often divided into primary and secondary microplastics.

* '''Primary microplastics:''' Primary microplastics include particles that were originally manufactured on a micro scale. Examples include microbeads in cosmetic products and glitter particles. Many definitions also include particles that enter the environment directly on a micro scale through [[Abrasion Elastomers|abrasion]] or flaking, e.g. tyre abrasion or paint particles. The proportion of primary microplastics in the total marine occurrence is estimated at around 20–30 % [11]. The production of microplastic particles is increasingly restricted by legal regulations, so their proportion should decrease in the future [8, 12].

* '''Secondary microplastics:''' Secondary microplastics are created by the fragmentation of larger plastic objects as a result of physical, chemical or biological degradation processes (see: [[Ageing|ageing]]). It is estimated that they account for around 70–80 % of marine microplastics [11]. As their formation is based on uncontrolled degradation processes, regulatory restrictions are only possible indirectly [13]. The main degradation mechanisms include UV radiation, thermal stress, mechanical abrasion and microbially influenced processes, which often take place in biofilms on the particle surface [14].

This classification can also be applied to nanoplastics [6].

===Challenges===

Both particle classes have the problem that their small size makes detection, identification and quantification difficult [15]. Most analytical techniques are unable to cover the entire size range of nano- and microplastics, which further complicates comprehensive analysis [16]. Another major challenge is avoiding contamination, as microplastics and nanoplastics are ubiquitous in the environment and many laboratory items are made of [[Plastics|plastic]] [17]. In addition, sample preparation and extraction from complex matrices such as sediments, biological tissue or food require complex protocols that often still need to be developed [18]. The resulting measurements therefore show high variability. Concentration data and exposure estimates should be interpreted with caution, especially in complex systems.

===Sources and released quantities===

Reliable estimates of the sources and release quantities of microplastics are difficult to obtain, as secondary microplastics account for a large proportion of microplastics in the environment. Various studies have attempted to estimate the sources and quantities of microplastics produced ('''Fig. 1''') [19–21]. The reported values vary depending on the ecosystems and regions considered. Overall, tyre abrasion and textile fibres are considered to be the most significant sources of microplastics in the environment [22]. The global amount released is estimated at 3.0–5.3 million tonnes per year [22].

[[File:Microplastics-1.jpg|700px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |The main sources of primary and secondary microplastics in the sea
|}

==Microplastics as pollutants==

Microplastics are considered to be potentially harmful to the environment and human health. Their toxicity depends on many factors, such as particle size, shape, material, additives contained, and pollutants adsorbed on the [[Surface|surface]]. The groups of substances that are frequently adsorbed include metals, endocrine-disrupting substances and persistent organic pollutants [23, 24]. In addition, microplastics can act as carriers for pathogens and microorganisms that form biofilms on the particle surface [25].

===Occurrence in the environment===

Microplastics have been detected in all areas of our environment, including freshwater, soil, air and oceans, as well as in remote regions such as the Arctic and Alpine areas (Fig. 2) [14]. Research initially focused primarily on marine systems, particularly surface waters and coastal zones. Other environmental areas such as soil, sediments and the atmosphere have been studied much less extensively in comparison.

Microplastics enter water bodies through direct inputs such as sewage or through transport from other areas such as precipitation. In water bodies, depending on their [[Density|density]] and flow conditions, microplastics can float in the water column, accumulate on the [[Surface|surface]] or be deposited in sediments [3]. As long as no deposition occurs, microplastics are transported in the water cycle and thus enter coastal regions and oceans from rivers [22].

Microplastics enter the soil from sewage sludge, tyre abrasion, [[Hole Formation Films|mulch films]] and deposition from the atmosphere [26]. As there is only a small amount of transport of microplastics from the soil to other areas, microplastics can often accumulate here and reach higher concentrations than in the marine environment, for example. Microplastics have been detected in the atmosphere in both urban and rural regions. Atmospheric transport by wind contributes significantly to the long-range distribution of particles and also transports them to remote areas such as high mountains and polar regions [27].

Plants can absorb microplastics through their roots [28]. The consequences include altered root growth, changes in metabolism and reduced nutrient uptake. Another effect of microplastics is disruption of the soil structure, which reduces water retention capacity and leads to a decrease in crop yields [29, 30].

Animals, like humans, absorb microplastics primarily orally and through inhalation. While acute toxicity is rarely observed, chronic effects often occur, such as:

* Bioaccumulation in the digestive tract and tissue
* Inflammatory reactions and oxidative stress
* Impaired food intake or locomotion
* Changes in metabolism
* Changes in reproduction [31].

The observed consequences depend on particle properties such as size, shape and material, but also on the duration and concentration of exposure. Due to its smaller size, nanoplastics can more easily overcome biological [[Barrier Plastics|barriers]] and increasingly enter cells and tissue [7].

[[File:Microplastics-2.jpg|700px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px" | Number of microplastic particles (MP) in different areas of the environment (based on Thompson et al., Science 2024)
|}

===Influence on human health===

Humans can absorb microplastics through oral ingestion, inhalation and, to a much lesser extent, through the skin.

* '''Oral intake:'''
::::Estimates of the annual number of particles ingested orally vary widely, ranging from approximately 11,000 [32] to 113,000 [33, 34] particles per person. These values should be considered rough approximations, as standardised analytical methods are lacking for many food groups and reliable sample data is often unavailable. Microplastics have been detected in various foods, including drinking water, salt, honey and fish [35]. Food packaging can also be an additional source, for example tea bags or disposable containers [36, 37]. Regional differences in diet and hygiene standards also influence exposure [38]. Despite this uncertainty in determination, it can be assumed that relevant amounts of microplastics enter the human body via food.

* '''Inhalation:'''
::::The sources of this include textile fibres, house dust, tyre abrasion and industrial emissions [39]. One study estimates the annual inhalation intake indoors to be around 65,000–80,000 particles [40]. Particles < 10 µm can enter the lower respiratory tract, and particles < 1 µm can penetrate the alveoli and possibly enter the bloodstream [41]. Inhaled microplastics can trigger local inflammatory reactions in the lungs, which can lead to chronic diseases such as asthma, COPD and cancer [41].

* '''Dermal absorption:'''
::::plays a minor role. There is evidence that particles < 100 nm can penetrate the skin barrier under certain conditions, especially in pre-damaged skin [42]. Quantitative data on dermal exposure are currently scarce.

Microplastics have been detected in various human tissues, including the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, placenta and faecal samples (Fig. 3) [43]. This suggests that some of the particles ingested are excreted, while others remain in the body or are transported to organs [43, 44]. There is currently little knowledge about the long-term health effects of microplastics [45]. Particles < 1.5 µm can penetrate tissue and cause damage within cells [46], while particles < 10 µm can cross the placental barrier [47]. Irregularly shaped, sharp-edged or fibrous particles have an increased potential for mechanical tissue damage due to their geometry and often remain in the organism for longer before being excreted [48].

[[file:Microplastics-3.jpg|750px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px" |Schematic overview of the oral intake, distribution and excretion of microplastics in the human body
|}

In addition to mechanical effects, polymer-bound additives such as phthalates or bisphenol A, as well as substances adsorbed on the surface, including heavy metals and organic contaminants, can be released into the organism and influence biological processes [49]. If microplastic particles enter tissue, they can trigger oxidative stress and inflammatory reactions, which have been linked in the literature to various immunological and chronic diseases [31]. In cell culture studies, cytotoxic effects have been described at concentrations of around 10 µg/mL; immunological reactions occurred at concentrations of around 20 µg/mL [50].

'''Table 1:''' Summary of the properties of microplastics that are relevant to toxicity and their health consequences (modified from Koelmans et al. Nature 2022)

{| border="1px" style="border-collapse:collapse"
! style="width:200px; background:#DCDCDC" | particle type
! style="width:200px; background:#DCDCDC" | relevant properties
! colspan="3" style="background:#DCDCDC" | possible consequences
|-
|colspan="5" style="background:#BBBBBB"|'''Microparticles (1–1000 μm)'''
|-
|'''organic material'''
|chemical composition, digestibility
|style="width:100px;"|chemical toxicity
|style="width:100px;"|
|style="width:100px;"|
|-
|'''microplastic'''
|size, volume, surface area, aspect ratio, shape, adsorbed chemicals
|chemical toxicity
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|thinning of food, mechanical irritation, inflammation, oxidative stress
|
|-
|'''coal'''
|size, surface area, chemical composition
|pneumoconiosis, fibrosis, cancer
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|
|-
|colspan="5" style="background:#BBBBBB"|'''Particles that occur in micrometre and nanometre sizes'''
|-
|'''asbestos'''
|fibre length, aspect ratio, type, persistence
|asbestosis, pleural disease, lung cancer, mesothelioma
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|translocation, biodistribution, mechanical irritation, oxidative stress
|-
|'''desert dust aerosols'''
|size, surface, shape
|breathing difficulties, silicosis
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''quartz (silica)'''
|size, surface, shape
|release of silica, cancer
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|colspan="5" style="background:#BBBBBB"|'''Nanoparticle (1–1,000 nm)'''
|-
|'''carbon black'''
|size, surface, adsorb chemicals
|respiratory and cardiovascular disease, cancer
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''nanoplastic'''
|size, surface area, charge, length, size ratio, aggregation, sorbed chemicals
|unknown
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''carbon-nanotubes'''
|size, surface, length, aspect ratio, aggregation, sorbed chemicals
|fibrosis, infections, cancer
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''metal based nano materials'''
|size, surface, charge, zeta potential, solubility, aggregation
|inflammation, mitochondrial damage, DNA damage
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''colloids made from organic material'''
|digestibility, sorbed chemicals
|chemical toxicity
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|}

==Properties of microplastic particles==

===Shape===

Microplastic particles can occur in various forms, such as fragments, fibres, films, pellets and foams [51]. Primary microplastics are usually spherical, while secondary microplastics are mostly irregular in shape [52]. The shape is determined by the originally produced plastic product and the [[Ageing|ageing]] and degradation processes to which it is subjected. The shape can therefore be used to narrow down the source of microplastics found. Round particles typically originate from cosmetic products or industrial applications, while fibres are often released from textiles [53, 54].

The particle shape influences the toxicological potential. Elongated particles and sharp-edged fragments can cause more severe physical damage than round particles [50, 55, 56]. Fibres often remain in organisms for longer and therefore have an increased potential for damage [57]. It follows that secondary microplastics are generally more harmful than primary microplastics due to their typical shapes [55].

===Material===

The most commonly identified materials in microplastics are polyethylene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PE), polypropylene (abbreviation: PP), polystyrene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PS), polyvinyl chloride ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PVC), polyethylene terephthalate ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PET) and rubber from tyre [[Abrasion Elastomers|abrasion]] ('''Fig. 2'''). These are the [[Plastics|plastics]] most commonly used in the manufacture of consumer products [58]. Transport in the environment depends heavily on polymer density; polymers with a [[Density|density]] < 1 g/cm³ float on the [[Surface|surface]] and are transported over long distances in water, while particles with a higher density accumulate in the sediment [59].

Compared to size and shape, the [[Material & Werkstoff|material]] has less influence on toxicity. However, surface charge and hydrophobicity influence the adsorption behaviour towards organic and inorganic contaminants [60]. In addition, most plastics contain additives that are specific to the material and can increase toxicity through leaching [23].

Ageing and degradation processes such as photo-oxidation, hydrolysis or the formation of biofilms alter the surface chemistry and roughness of microplastic particles [14]. This results in oxidised, roughened surfaces with increased reactivity and adsorption capacity, as well as enhanced interaction with biological material.

[[File:Microplastics-4.jpg|500px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 4''':
|width="600px" |Plastic types and their presence in microplastics from the environment
|}

===Size===

The size of microplastic particles influences their mobility and bioavailability in the environment. The smaller a particle is, the easier it is for it to enter various ecosystems, become part of the food chain or penetrate biological membranes [61]. Smaller particles also remain in some organisms for longer before being excreted [48]. The specific surface area has a significant influence on the adsorption of pollutants and the release of polymer additives [62]. Smaller particles often remain in suspension for longer and can therefore be transported over greater distances [63].

Microplastics and nanoplastics occur in a wide range of sizes, the distribution of which is determined by the respective source and the degradation processes they have undergone. Primary microplastics usually have a more narrow size distribution than secondary microplastics and nanoplastics. Particle sizes of 6–100 µm have been detected in bottled drinking water, while particles up to about 1 mm have been observed in foods such as fish, salt or poultry tissue [35]. All sizes up to the limit of 5 mm occur in the environment.

'''Acknowledgement'''

The editors of the encyclopaedia would like to thank Prof. Dr. Vasiliki-Maria Archodoulaki and Dr. Lisa Schardt, [https://tiss.tuwien.ac.at/fpl/research-unit/index.xhtml?id=2206718 Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Materials Science and Technology, Structural Polymers Research Group], for this guest contribution

==See also==

* [[Plastics]]
* [[Barrier Plastics|Barrier plastics]]
* [[Smart Materials|Smart materials]]
* [[Bio-Plastics]]
* [[Layer silicate-reinforced Polymers|Layer silicate-reinforced polymers]]
* [[Particle-filled Thermoplastics|Particle-filled thermoplastics]]
* [[Short-fibre reinforced Plastics|Short-fibre reinforced plastics]]
* [[Fibre-reinforced Plastics|Fibre-reinforced plastics]]
* [[Polymer Blend|Polymer blend]]

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|Bom, F. C., Sá, F.: Concentration of microplastics in bivalves of the environment: a systematic review. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment '''2021''', 193 (12), 846. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09639-1
|-valign="top"
|[53]
|Not, C., Chan, K., So, M. W. K., Lau, W., Tang, L. T.-W., Cheung, C. K. H.: State of microbeads in facial scrubs: persistence and the need for broader regulation. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2025, 32 (17), 11063–11071. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-36341-3
|-valign="top"
|[54]
|Microplastics from textiles: towards a circular economy for textiles in Europe; European Environment Agency, Briefing no. 16/2021, 2021. DOI: http://doi.org/10.2800/863646
|-valign="top"
|[55]
|Xia, B., Sui, Q., Du, Y., Wang, L., Jing, J., Zhu, L., Zhao, X., Sun, X. Booth, A. M., Chen, B., et al.: Secondary PVC microplastics are more toxic than primary PVC microplastics to Oryzias melastigma embryos. J. Hazard. Mater. '''2022''', 424, 127421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127421
|-valign="top"
|[56]
|Choi, D., Hwang, J., Bang, J., Han, S. Kim, T., Oh, Y. Hwang, Y., Choi, J. Hong, J.: In vitro toxicity from a physical perspective of polyethylene microplastics based on statistical curvature change analysis. Sci. Total Environ. '''2021''', 752, 142242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142242
|-valign="top"
|[57]
|Renzi, M., Guerranti, C., Blašković, A.: Microplastic contents from maricultured and natural mussels. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2018, 131, 248-251. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.04.035
|-valign="top"
|[58]
|Tursi, A., Baratta, M., Easton, T., Chatzisymeon, E., Chidichimo, F., De Biase, M., De Filpo, G.: Microplastics in aquatic systems, a comprehensive review: origination, accumulation, impact, and removal technologies. In RSC Adv, 2022; Vol. 12, pp. 28318–28340
|-valign="top"
|[59]
|He, B., Smith, M., Egodawatta, P., Ayoko, G. A., Rintoul, L., Goonetilleke, A.: Dispersal and transport of microplastics in river sediments. Environ. Pollut. '''2021''', 279, 116884. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116884
|-valign="top"
|[60]
|Tseng, L. Y., You, C., Vu, C., Chistolini, M. K., Wang, C. Y., Mast, K., Luo, F., Asvapathanagul, P., Gedalanga, P. B., Eusebi, A. L., et al.: Adsorption of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) with Varying Hydrophobicity on Macro- and Microplastic Polyvinyl Chloride, Polyethylene, and Polystyrene: Kinetics and Potential Mechanisms. Water 2022, 14 (16), 2581
|-valign="top"
|[61]
|Yee, M. S., Hii, L.-W., Looi, C. K., Lim, W.-M., Wong, S.-F., Kok, Y.-Y. Tan, B.-K., Wong, C.-Y., Leong, C.-O.:, Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Human Health. In Nanomaterials, 2021; Vol. 11
|-valign="top"
|[62]
|Costa, J. P. d., Avellan, A., Mouneyrac, C., Duarte, A., Rocha-Santos, T.: Plastic additives and microplastics as emerging contaminants: Mechanisms and analytical assessment. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry 2023, 158, 116898. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2022.116898
|-valign="top"
|[63]
|Peries, S. D., Sewwandi, M., Sandanayake, S., Kwon, H.-H., Vithanage, M.: Airborne transboundary microplastics – A Swirl around the globe. Environ. Pollut. 2024, 353, 124080. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124080
|}

[[Category:Guest Contributions]]
[[Category:Plastics]]

MPK-Procedure MPK-ITIT

2026-01-12T10:01:17Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=MPK-Prozedur MPK-IKZV}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}

The MPK-procedure for the [[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test]] can be downloaded here:
*[https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de/fileadmin/inhalte/psm/veroeffentlichungen/MPK_IKZV_englisch.pdf MPK-Procedure MPK-ITIT english]
*[https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de/fileadmin/inhalte/psm/veroeffentlichungen/MPK_IKZV_deutsch.pdf MPK-Procedure MPK-ITIT german]

[[category:Impact Tests]]

MPK-Procedure MPK-ICIT

2026-01-12T09:49:20Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=MPK-Prozedur MPK-IKBV}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}

The MPK-procedure for the [[Instrumented Charpy Impact Test]] can be downloaded here:
*[https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de/fileadmin/inhalte/psm/veroeffentlichungen/MPK_IKBV_englisch.pdf MPK-Procedure MPK-ICIT english]
*[https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de/fileadmin/inhalte/psm/veroeffentlichungen/MPK_IKBV_deutsch.pdf MPK-Procedure MPK-ICIT german]

[[category:Instrumented Impact Test]]
[[category:Impact Tests]]

Sound Emission Experimental Conditions

2026-01-12T08:00:56Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Schallemission Experimentelle Bedingungen}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Sound emission experimental conditions
__FORCETOC__

==General==

[[Sound Emission Testing|Sound emission testing]] is used on [[Plastics|plastics]] to investigate damage behaviour and locate sources of acoustic emissions in [[Plastic Component|components]], and in [[Materials Testing|materials testing]] and development to characterise dominant [[Deformation Mechanisms|damage mechanisms]], to represent the temporal damage kinetics and to determine damage limits, the results of which can be applied constructively in damage mechanics. For this purpose, various evaluation methods of [[Sound Emission Analysis|sound emission analysis]], such as amplitude, energy or [[Frequency Analysis|frequency analysis]], as well as simple characteristic values (hits, events or impulses) are used to represent damage development [1, 2].

[[Sound Emission|Sound emissions]] or [[Acoustic Emission|acoustic emissions]] always occur in solids when certain critical material stresses are exceeded ([[Crack|microcracks]], fibre breaks, delamination and debonding, see: [[Fibre-reinforced Plastics Fracture Model|fibre-reinforced plastics fracture model]]), elastic energy is emitted in the form of mechanical stress waves, which propagate in the test object primarily as spherical volume waves ('''Fig. 1''') [1]. In geometrically limited test objects, a mode conversion then occurs at the [[Surface|surface]], which makes it possible to register the [[Acoustic Emission|acoustic emission]] by means of surface or Rayleigh waves even at a greater distance from the sound emission source location.

[[File:Sound Emission ExpCond-1.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px"|Wave mode conversion in confined test objects (a) and surface wave behaviour (b)
|}

==Frequency response of ultrasonic sensors==

However, the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the [[Material & Werkstoff|material]] (see: [[Ultrasound Testing|ultrasound testing]]) depends largely on the transmission behaviour of the measuring chain, which consists of the ultrasonic receiver, the preamplifier and main amplifier, and the filters used. As a result, the original signal undergoes numerous changes due to frequency [[Dispersion|dispersion]], [[Ultrasonic Waves Reflection|reflection]] and scattering, causing the recorded measurement signal to differ significantly from the source signal. This means that the original square wave pulse becomes a long signal that slowly rises and falls.

Other reasons for changes to the original signal include:

* Material-inherent loss mechanisms
* [[Ultrasonic Sensors|Sensor influences]], especially directional characteristics and frequency ('''Fig. 2''')
* Interference with the useful signal by extraneous noise
* [[Viscosity]], layer thickness and damping behaviour of the coupling medium
* Surface quality of the [[Plastic Component|component]] or [[Specimen|test specimen]]
* Contact pressure between transducer and [[Surface|surface]]

[[File:Sound Emission ExpCond-2.jpg|450px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px"|Frequency response of different sensors (a) and their directional characteristics (b)
|}

==Distance between the measuring point and the sound source==

However, the signal received is also significantly influenced by the measurement location and the mass of the sensor in relation to the test specimen [3]. '''Figure 3''' shows the influence of the change in measurement location distance x from a specified predetermined breaking point for polypropylene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PP) and polyamide 6 ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PA), each with 30 m.-% short glass fibres.

[[File:Schallemission_exp_Bedingungen_3.jpg|450px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px"|Dependence of registered hits on measurement distance x
|}

If the sensor is located directly above the sound source, the maximum number of hits is measured for both [[Material & Werkstoff|materials]] with [[Notch|notches]], which is mainly based on the registered volume waves. As the distance increases, the heat number decreases significantly and approaches an asymptote at x = 30 mm. Since small changes in the exact position near the source location have a greater effect, the scatter of the [[Measured Value|measured values]] is significantly higher here. If the sensitivity of the sensor is sufficient, the sensor should therefore always be at a sufficient distance from the known sound source.

==Influence of the intrinsic mass of the sound emission sensor==

When a BRÜEL&KJAER 8313 resonant acoustic emission sensor with an intrinsic mass of 16 g is positioned centrally, a heat count of approx. 7,500 is recorded for polyamide with 20 m-% short glass fibres until [[Fracture|fracture]] of the test [[Specimen|specimen]] in the [[Tensile Test|tensile test]] ('''Fig. 4'''). By attaching an additional mass ''m''z to the opposite side of the test specimen, the increase in the dead weight of the sensor used is simulated in the [[Tensile Test|tensile tests]].

[[File:Schallemission_exp_Bedingungen_4.jpg|450px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 4''':
|width="600px"|Dependence of registered hits on the mass mz of the sound detector
|}

It can be seen from '''Fig. 4''' that the mass of the sensor has a significant influence on the result of the [[Sound Emission Testing|sound emission test]]. Up to an additional mass of 36 g, the hit numbers drop sharply and, with a further increase, result in an almost constant level of hit numbers.

==Linear location measurements==

If two identical BRÜEL&KJAER 8313 sensors (pair) are used to measure the [[Acoustic Emission|acoustic emissions]], the result for polyamide with 25 % glass fibres is shown in '''Fig. 5'''. One sensor ''m''af is fixed directly near the clamping point, taking into account the injection point, while the location of the other sensor ''m''av is varied up to the centre of the test specimen ''l''/2. It can be seen that comparable hit numbers are only measured in the centre of the test specimen and when both sensors are positioned at the [[Specimen Clamping|clamping point]], which is particularly important to note when performing linear location measurements.

[[File:Schallemission_exp_Bedingungen_5.jpg|450px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 5''':
|width="600px"|Dependence of registered hits on the position of the sound sensors
|}

==See also==

* [[Acoustic Emission|Acoustic emission]]
* [[Sound Emission|Sound emission]]
* [[Sound Emission Analysis|Sound emission analysis]]
* [[Sound Emission Testing|Sound emission testing]]
* [[Sound Velocity|Sound velocity]]
* [[Ultrasound Birefringence|Ultrasound birefringence]]
* [[Ultrasonic Sensors|Ultrasonic sensors]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Bardenheier, R.: Schallemissionsuntersuchungen an polymeren Verbundwerkstoffen – Part I: Das Schallemissionsmessverfahren als quasi-zerstörungsfreie Werkstoffprüfung. Zeitschrift für Werkstofftechnik 11 (1980) 41–46
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|Bohse, J.: Acoustic Emission Characteristics of Micro-Failure Processes in Polymer Blends and Composites. Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 1213–1226; https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3538(00)00060-9
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|[[Bierögel, Christian|Bierögel, C.]]: Zur Problematik der Schallemissionsanalyse an verstärkten Thermo- und Duroplasten. Dissertation, Technische Hochschule Leuna-Merseburg (1984)
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|Wessolek, U.: Untersuchungen zur Berücksichtigung der Dämpfung auf die Ergebnisse der Schallemissionsanalyse bei kurzfaserverstärkten Plasten. Master Thesis, [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technische_Hochschule_Leuna-Merseburg Technische Hochschule Leuna-Merseburg] (1981)
|}

[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]

Indentation Modulus

2026-01-12T07:44:59Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Eindringmodul}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Indentation modulus
__FORCETOC__

==Definition of the indentation modulus==

The indentation modulus ''E''IT (in MPa) is determined in the micro load range of the [[Hardness | hardness test]] using a method described in detail in ISO 14577 [1] from the initial rise of the unloading curve of the load (''F'')–indentation depth (''h'') diagram (see: [[Instrumented Hardness Testing – Method & Material Parameters | instrumented hardness testing – method & material parameters]]) at the maximum load ''F''max (d''F''/d''h''|''F''max). In the nanolast range of hardness testing, the method according to Oliver and Pharr is usually used [2]. According to ISO 14577, it is taken into account that the mechanical resistances of the test specimen and diamond [[Indenter|indenter]] are connected in parallel (see '''Figure''' and Eq. 1)

[[file:Indentation Modulus_Figure.jpg]]

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="650px" | <math>\frac {1} {E_{G}} = \frac {1\,-\,\nu^2}{E_{IT}}\,+\, \frac {1-\nu^2_D} {E_{D}}</math>
|(1)
|}

This results in ''E''IT:
{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="650px" | <math> E_{IT} = \frac{1-\nu^2}{\frac {1}{E_G}\,-\,\frac{1-\nu^2_D}{E_D}}</math>
|(2)
|}

from which the following expression can be derived using the relationships described in detail in ISO 14577:

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="650px" | <math> E_{IT} = \frac {1-\nu^2} {0,5 \sqrt {\frac {24,5} {\pi}} \cdot \left( \frac {dh} {dF} \right )_{F_{max}} \cdot \left( 4h_t-3F_{max} \left(\frac {dh} {dF} \right)_{F_{max}} \right)-8,73 \cdot 10^{-13} Pa^{-1}}
</math>
|(3)
|}

The [[Poisson's Ratio | Poisson's ratio]] required to calculate ''E''IT is known for most [[Thermoplastic Material | materials]] and is relatively independent of temperature. The value 8.73 x 10-13 Pa-1 is the effective compliance of diamond.

==Application limits==

When using the indentation modulus ''E''IT, it is important to note that although ''E''IT is fundamentally equivalent to a [[Elastic Modulus | modulus of elasticity]], it only describes the [[Stiffness|stiffness]] behaviour very locally and under [[Multiaxial Stress State|triaxial loading]]. This results in a difference in value to the [[Material Value | characteristic values]] of the [[Elastic Modulus | modulus of elasticity]], which were determined using conventional [[Polymer Testing | plastic testing]] methods, such as the [[Uniaxial Stress State|uniaxial]] [[Tensile Test | tensile]] or [[Compression Test | compression test]] or the [[Bend Test#The three-point bending test method|three-]] or [[Bend Test#The four-point bending test method|four-point bending test]]. The indentation modulus can therefore not be used for dimensioning purposes.

==See also==

*[[Elastic Modulus|Elastic modulus]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Testing – Method & Material Parameters|Instrumented hardness testing – method & material parameters]]
*[[Vickers Hardness|vickers hardness]]
*[[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters|Ultrasound – elastic parameters]]
*[[Indentation Fracture Mechanics|Indentation fracture mechanics]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|ISO 14577: Metallic Materials – Instrumented Indentation Test for Hardness and Materials Parameters
* Part 1 (2024-08): Test Method (Draft)
* Part 2 (2024-08): Verification and Calibration of Testing Machines (Draft)
* Part 3 (2024-07): Calibration of Reference Blocks (Draft)
* Part 4 (2016-11): Test Method for Metallic and Non-metallic Coatings
* Part 5 (2022-10): Linear Elastic Dynamic Instrumented Indentation Testing (DIIT)
* Part 6 (2025-11): Instrumented Indentation Test at Elevated Temperature
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|Oliver, W. C., Pharr, G. M.: An Improved Technique for Determining Hardness and Elastic Modulus using Load and Displacement Sensing Indentation. J. of Materials Research 7 (1992) 1564–1583
|}

[[category: Hardness]]
[[category: Surface Testing Technology]]

Imaging Ultrasonic Testing

2026-01-12T07:42:33Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Bildgebende Ultraschallprüfung}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Imaging Ultrasonic Testing
__FORCETOC__

==Graphical representations of ultrasound images==

Imaging ultrasound testing basically covers all graphical representations of amplitude as a function of time or location. It ranges from simple [[HF-Scan|HF-scan]] representation using a simple oscilloscope to [[A-Scan Technique|A-scan]] and 4d-scan. The information provided by ultrasonic images varies depending on the type of representation. The A-scan (rather than the HF-scan) is particularly important due to its relatively easy-to-interpret representation. For this reason, it is not customary to classify this representation of ultrasonic signals, which has existed since the early days of [[Ultrasound Testing|ultrasound testing]], as imaging ultrasound testing. In addition, for physical reasons, [[Ultrasound Testing|ultrasound testing]] is mostly used as a single-point test, whose signals are processed as HF- or A-scans. It was only later that line scanning ([[B-Scan Technique|B-scan]]) and area scanning ([[C-Scan Technique|C]]/[[D-Scan Technique|D]]-scan) became technically viable. The scan is actually a raster scan, because the A-scans are composed as images in line or area form and scaled (by colour or grey scale) ('''Fig. 1'''). To ensure that the sensor is subject to as little mechanical wear as possible, the scans are performed using, for example, the [[Squirter Technique|squirter technique]] or [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique|immersion technique]]. The basic metrological requirement is therefore an active scanning process of the [[Ultrasonic Sensors|ultrasonic sensor]] or the ultrasonic beam in [[Ultrasonic Phased Array Sensors|phased array technology]], as well as passive scanning, in which the test piece moves under an ultrasonic test field. With this type of measurement, the [[HF-Scan|HF-signals]] are recorded as a function of location and time and evaluated in terms of signal propagation time and/or amplitude or attenuation.

[[File:Ultrasonic Testing imaging.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Schematic diagram of the relationship between [[A-Scan Technique|A-]], [[B-Scan Technique|B-]] and [[C-Scan Technique|C-scans]] in relation to the visual representation of [[Errors|errors]]
|}

==Types of imaging in ultrasonic testing==

The actual ‘ultrasonic imaging test’ is therefore characterised by the graphical 2D or 3D representation of the ultrasonic signal. A distinction is made between

* [[HF-Scan|HF-scan]],
* [[A-Scan Technique|A-scan]],
* [[B-Scan Technique|B-scan]],
* [[C-Scan Technique|C-scan]],
* [[D-Scan Technique|D-scan]] and
* [[F-Scan Technique|F-scan]]

as well as several other types of representation that have been developed for special cases.

==See also==

* [[Ultrasound Testing|Ultrasound testing]]
* [[Squirter Technique|Squirter technique]]
* [[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique|Ultrasonic immersion bath technique]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Deutsch, V.; Platte, M.; Vogt, M.: Ultraschallprüfung – Grundlagen und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (1997), ISBN 978-3-642-63864-0; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under M 45)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|Krautkrämer, J.; Krautkrämer, H.: Werkstoffprüfung mit Ultraschall. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (2013) (ISBN 978-3-662-10910-6)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|Ahrholdt, M.: Ein System zur automatischen Auswertung von Ultraschall-Messdaten. Cuvillier Verlag (2005) (ISBN 978-3-8653-7581-0)
|}

[[Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics]]

Category:Colour and Gloss

2026-01-12T07:00:27Z

Oluschinski:

This category contains articles about colour and gloss.

Content

2026-01-09T13:25:57Z

Oluschinski:

Welcome to the PSM Wiki-lexicon "Polymer Testing & Diagnostics" from [http://www.psm-merseburg.de Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg] ([[Polymer_Service_GmbH_Merseburg|PSM]])!

{{PSM_Infobox}}

{{TOC_eng}}

== A ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[ABBE Refractometer]]
*Abbreviated Terms – Plastics (see [[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms]])
*[[Abrasion Elastomers]]
*Absorption Light (see [[Light Absorption]])
*[[Absorption Sound Waves]]
*[[Accuracy Class]]
*[[Acoustic Emission]]
*Acoustic Microscopy (see [[Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)]])
*[[Acoustic Properties]]
*Acoustic Resonance Analysis (see [[Resonance Analysis]] (Acoustic)
*[[Accreditation and Certification]]
*ADAM-GIBBS-realition (see [[Crystallinity]])
*[[Adhesive Energy Release Rate]]
*[[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]]
*Adhesion Glass Fibre (see [[Fibre–Matrix Adhesion]])
*[[Adjustment]]
*[[Ageing]]
*[[Ageing Elastomers]]
*[[Air-Ultrasound]]
*[[Air-Ultrasound – Device Technology]]
*[[Alpha ROCKWELL Hardness]]
*[[Altstädt, Volker]]
*Anisotropic Deformation (see [[Deformation]])
*[[Anisotropy]]
*[[A-Scan Technique]]
*[[Arcan-Specimen]]
*Arc-shaped Specimen (see [[C-shaped Test Specimen]])
*Arrest Lines (see [[Fracture Types]], [[Fractography]] and [[Waves and Arrest Lines]])
*[[Ashing Method]]
*[[Atomic Force Microscopy]] (AFM)
}}

== B ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Bakelite]]
*[[Ball Indentation Hardness]]
*Ball Indentation Hardness IRHD (see [[IRHD Hardness]])
*[[Ball or Pin-Impression Method]]
*BARENBLATT Crack Model (see [[Crack Model according to BARENBLATT]])
*[[Barrier Plastics]]
*[[Barcol Hardness]]
*BCS Crack Model (see [[Crack Models]])
*[[BEGLEY and LANDES – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
* Bending Stiffness (see [[Stiffness]] and [[Bend Test Compliance]])
*[[Bend Loading]]
*[[Bend Test]]
*[[Bend Test and Light Microscopy]]
*[[Bend Test and Sound Emission Analysis]]
*[[Bend Test Compliance]]
*[[Bend Test – Influences]]
*[[Bend Test – Shear Stress]]
*[[Bend Test – Specimen Preparation]]
*[[Bend Test – Specimen Shapes]]
*[[Bend Test – Test Influences]]
*[[Bend Test – Yield Stress]]
*[[Bent Strip Method]]
*[[Bierögel, Christian]]
*[[Bio-Plastics]]
*[[Bio-Plastics – Impact-Modified]]
*Blowholes (see [[Shrink Voids]])
*[[Blumenauer, Horst]]
*Blunting Crack Tip (see [[Stretch Zone]], [[in-situ Tensile Test in ESEM with AE]] and [[Crack Opening]])
*[[BOLTZMANN's Superposition Principle]]
*Boundary Surface (see [[Phase Boundary Surface]])
*[[Brittle Fracture Promoting Factors]]
*[[Brittle-Tough Transition]]
*Brittle Fracture (see [[Fracture Types]], [[Component Failure]] and [[Fractography]])
*[[Brittle-Tough Transition Temperature]]
*[[B-Scan Technique]]
*[[BUCHHOLZ Hardness]]
*[[Bulk Density]]
}}

== C ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Calibration]]
*[[Campus®]]
*[[Capillary Rheometer]]
*Characteristic Values (see [[Material Value]])
*Charpy Impact Test (see [[Impact Test]])
*[[Charpy Testing]]
*Clamping Jaws (see [[Specimen Clamping]])
*Clip-on Strain Gauge (see [[Tensile Test#Tensile test, path measurement technique|Tensile Test, Path Measurement Technique]])
*[[CLS-Specimen]]
*Cohesive Strength (see [[Fracture]])
*Cold Stretching (see [[Tensile Test]])
*[[Colour]]
*[[Colour Penetration Test]]
*[[Compact Tension Specimen]]
*[[Compact Tension Shear (CTS) Specimen]]
*Comparative Tracking Index (CTI) (see [[Creep Current Resistance]])
*Compliance (see [[Tensile Test Compliance]] and [[Specimen Compliance]])
*Compliance Method (see [[J-Compliance Method]])
*[[Component Failure]]
*[[Component Testing]]
*[[Composite Materials Testing]]
*[[Composite Materials Testing – Requirements for Materials Testing Machines]]
*Composite Probes (see [[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors]])
*[[Compression After Impact Test]]
*[[Compression Hardness]]
*[[Compression Strength]]
*[[Compression Test]]
*[[Compression Test Arrangement]]
*[[Compression Test Compliance]]
*Compressive and Buckling Stiffness (see [[Stiffness]])
*Constraint Factor (see [[J-Integral Concept]] and [[Toughness Temperature Dependence]])
*Constant Tensile Load Method (see [[Tensile Creep Test]])
*[[Continuous Vibration Test]]
*[[Continuum Mechanics]]
*[[Conventional Hardness Testing]]
*Corrected Beam Theory (CBT) (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*[[Correspondence Principle]]
*[[Crack]]
*[[Crack Formation]]
*Crack Growth (see [[Crack Propagation]])
*[[Crack Initiation]]
*[[Crack Models]]
*[[Crack Model according to BARENBLATT]]
*[[Crack Model according to DUGDALE]]
*[[Crack Model according to GRIFFITH]]
*[[Crack Model according to IRWIN and Mc CLINTOCK]]
*[[Crack Opening]]
*[[Crack Opening Modes]]
*[[Crack Propagation]]
*[[Crack Propagation Energy]]
*[[Crack Resistance (R) Curve]]
*[[Crack Resistance Curve – Examples]]
*[[Crack Resistance Curve – Experimental Methods]]
*[[Crack Resistance Curve – Elastomers Quasistatic]]
*[[Crack Tip Opening Displacement Concept (CTOD)]]
*[[Crack Toughness]]
*[[Craze-Types]]
*Craze (see [[Micromechanics & Nanomechanics]])
*[[Crazing]]
*CRB-Test (Crack Round Bar Test) (see [[Full Notch Creep Test (FNCT)]] and [[Pennsylvania Edge Notch Tensile (PENT) Test]])
*[[Creep Behaviour – Creep Compression Test]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Determination]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Flexural Creep Test]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Recovery Test]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Tensile Creep Test]]
*[[Creep Compression Test]]
*[[Creep Current Resistance]]
*Creep Modul (see [[Creep Behaviour – Determination]])
*Creep Path Formation (see [[Tracking]])
*[[Creep Plastics]]
*[[Crescent Specimen]]
*[[Crosshead Speed]]
*[[Crystallinity]]
*[[Cross-linking Elastomers]]
*[[C-shaped Test Specimen]]
*[[C-Scan Technique]]
*[[CT-Specimen]]
*[[CTS-Specimen]]
*[[Curing]]
}}

== D ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Damage Analysis (see [[Failure Analysis – Basics]])
*Damage Analysis of Plastic Products (see [[Failure Analysis Plastics Products, VDI Guideline 3822]])
*[[DCB-Specimen]] (Double-Cantilever Beam)
*De BROGLIE equation (see [[Resolution Microscope]])
*Defect Density (see [[Tensile Test Event-related Interpretation]])
*[[Deformation]]
*[[Deformation Mechanisms]]
*[[Deformation Rate]]
*[[Deformation Velocity]]
*[[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]]
*[[Density]]
*[[Depth of Field Microscope]]
*[[Dielectric Loss Factor]]
*[[Dielectric Properties]]
*[[Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)]]
*[[Dispersion]]
*[[Drives Materials Testing Machines]]
*[[D-Scan Technique]]
*[[Ductility Plastics]]
*DUGDALE Crack Model (see [[Crack Model according to DUGDALE]])
*[[Durability Elastomers]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – General Principles]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Bend Loading]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Tensile Stress]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Tensile Test]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Torsional Stress]]
*Dynstat Impact Test (see [[Impact Test]])
}}

==E==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Effective Crack Length]]
*[[Ehrenstein, Gottfried W.]]
*[[Elasticity]]
*[[Elastic Modulus]]
*[[Elastic Modulus – Examples and Material Values]]
*[[Elastic Modulus – Ultrasonic Measurement]]
*[[Elastomers]]
*[[Elastomer Dispersion Filler]]
*[[Electrical Conductivity]]
*[[Electrical Strength]]
*[[Electro-mechanical Force Transducer]]
*[[Electron Microscopy]]
*[[Electronic Instrumentation]]
*[[Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI)]]
*Elongation at Break (see [[Tensile Strength]])
*Emission (see [[Acoustic Emission]])
*[[ENF-Specimen]] (End-Notched Flexure)
*[[Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX)]]
*[[Energy Elasticity]]
*[[Energy Release Rate]]
*Entanglements (see [[Polymers & Structure]], [[Entropy Elasticity]] and [[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]])
*[[Entropy Elasticity]]
*Entry Point (see [[Sink Mark]])
*[[Environmental-SEM (ESEM)]]
*[[Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance]]
*[[Equivalent Energy Concept – Application Limits]]
*[[Equivalent Energy Concept – Basics]]
*[[Errors]]
*[[Error Limit]]
*EULER's Buckling (see [[Stiffness]])
*Exfoliation (see [[Laser Silicate-reinforced Polymers]])
*Experimental Compliance Method (ECM) (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*[[Extended CTOD Concept]]
}}

==F==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Failure Analysis – Basics]]
*[[Failure Analysis Plastics Products, VDI Guideline 3822]]
*[[Fatigue]]
*[[Fatigue Strength]]
*[[Fatigue Crack Propagation Elastomers]]
*Fibre Formation (see [[Fracture Types]], [[Craze Types]] and [[Fracture Parables]])
*[[Fibre–Matrix Adhesion]]
*[[Fibre-reinforced Plastics]]
*[[Fibre-reinforced Plastics Fracture Model]]
*[[Fibre Orientation]]
*Fibre Content (see [[Ashing Method]])
*Fibrillation (see [[Crazing]], [[Craze-Types]] and [[Multiple Crazing]])
*[[Fixed-arm Peel Test]]
*Filler (see [[Particle-filled Thermoplastics]])
*[[Film Testing]]
*[[Flexural Creep Test]]
*[[Flexural Modulus]]
*[[Flexural Strength]]
*Flexural Test (see [[Bend Test]])
*FLORY-HUGGINS Interaction Parameter (see [[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]])
*FLORY-REHNER Theory (see [[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]])
*Four Point Bend Test (see [[Bend Test]] and [[Bend Test – Influences]])
*[[Fracture]]
*[[Fractography]]
*[[Fracture Behaviour]]
*[[Fracture Behaviour of Plastics Components]]
*Fracture Energy (see [[Fracture Formation]] and [[Fracture]])
*[[Fracture Formation]]
*[[Fracture Mechanical Testing]]
*[[Fracture Mechanics]]
*Fracture Mechanics Test Specimens (see [[Specimen for Fracture Mechanics Tests]])
*[[Fracture Modes]]
*[[Fracture Mirror]]
*[[Fracture Parables]]
*[[Fracture Process Zone]]
*[[Fracture Safety Criterion]]
*[[Fracture Surface]]
*Fracture Toughness (see [[Fracture Mechanics]])
*[[Fracture Types]]
*[[Free Falling Dart Method]]
*[[Freezing-Time]]
*[[Frequency Analysis]]
*[[Frequency Response Control]]
*Friction (see [[Bend Test – Influences]])
*[[Friction Force]]
*[[F-Scan Technique]]
*[[FTIR Spectroscopy]]
*[[Full Notch Creep Test (FNCT)]]
}}

==G==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Gas Bubbles]]
*[[Geometry Criterion]]
*[[Geometry Function]]
*Glass Fibre Content (see [[Ashing Method]])
*[[Glass Fibre Orientation]]
*[[Glass Transition Temperature]]
*[[Gloss]]
*[[Gloss Measurement]]
*[[Glowing Hot-Wire Test]]
*[[Goodyear, Charles Nelson]]
*[[Grellmann, Wolfgang]]
*[[Griffith, Alan Arnold]]
*GRIFFITH's crack model (see [[Crack Model according to GRIFFITH]])
*[[GRIFFITH's Criteria]]
*[[GRIFFITH's Theory]]

}}

==H==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Hardness]]
*Hardness Revaluation (see [[Hardness#Hardness revaluation|Hardness]])
*HAGEN-POISSEUILLE-Equation (see [[Capillary Rheometer]])
*Heat Conductivity (see [[Thermal Conductivity]])
*[[Heat Distortion Temperature HDT]]
*[[Heat Resistance]]
*[[HERTZIAN Pressure]]
*[[Heterogeneity]]
*[[HF-Scan]]
*High-pressure Capillary Rheometer (see [[Capillary Rheometer]])
*[[High-speed Tensile Test]]
*[[HOOKE's Law]]
*[[Hole Formation Films]]
*[[Hole Formation Plastics]]
*HRR Crack Model (see [[Crack Models]])
*HUYGENS' Principle (see [[Sound Pressure]])
*[[Hybrid Methods]] of Plastic Diagnostics
*[[Hybrid Methods, Examples]]
}}

== I ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*ICIT (see [[Instrumented Charpy Impact Test]])
*[[ICIT – Energy Method]]
*[[ICIT – Experimental Conditions]]
*[[ICIT – Extended Stop-Block Method]]
*[[ICIT – Influence of Pendulum Hammer Velocity]]
*[[ICIT – Limits of Fracture Mechanics Evaluation]]
*[[ICIT – Nonlinear Material Behaviour]]
*[[ICIT – Specimen Length Method]]
*[[ICIT – Stop Block Method]]
*[[ICIT – Support Span Method]]
*[[ICIT – Types of Impact Load–Deflection Diagrams]]
*[[ICIT with AE]]
*Immersion Method (see [[Density]])
*[[Imaging Ultrasonic Testing]]
*[[Impact Loading Free-falling Dart Test]]
*[[Impact Loading High-Speed Testing]]
*[[Impact Loading Pendulum Impact Tester]]
*[[Impact Loading Plastics]]
*[[Impact Test]]
*In-situ Peel Test (see [[Peeling Process]])
*[[In-situ Tensile Test in ESEM with AE]]
*[[In-situ Tensile Test in NMR]]
*[[In-situ Ultramicrotomy]]
*[[Indentation Fracture Mechanics]]
*[[Indentation Modulus]]
*[[Indenter]]
*Index of Refraction (see [[Refraction Index]])
*Induction Time (see [[Thermostability PVC]])
*[[Inertial Load]]
*[[Initial Crack Length]]
*Instrumentation (see [[Electronic Instrumentation]])
*[[Instrumented Adhesion Test]]
*[[Instrumented Charpy Impact Test]] (ICIT)
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement – Creep]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement – Indentation Depth Measurement with Modified Contact Foot]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement – Relaxation]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement with Tempering]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Testing – Method & Material Parameters]]
*[[Instrumented Puncture Impact Test]]
*[[Instrumented Scratch Testing]]
*[[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test (ITIT)]]
*[[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test (ITIT), Examples]]
*[[Insulation Resistance]]
*Intercalated Structure (see [[Layer Silicate-reinforced Polymers]])
*Interface (see [[Phase Boundary Surface]])
*[[Interlaminar Shear Strength]]
*[[IRHD Hardness]]
*IRWIN and Mc CLINTOCK crack model (see [[Crack Model according to IRWIN and Mc CLINTOCK]])
*IRWIN-KIES Equation (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*ITIT (see [[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test]])
*IZOD Impact Test (see [[Impact Test]])
}}

==J==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[J-Compliance Method]]
*[[J-Integral Concept]]
*[[J-Integral Evaluation Methods (Overview)]]
*J-integral Estimation Methods of
::- BEGLEY and LANDES (see [[BEGLEY and LANDES – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (BL))
::- RICE, PARIS and MERKLE (see [[RICE, PARIS and MERKLE – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (RPM))
::- SUMPTER and TURNER (see [[SUMPTER and TURNER – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (ST))
::- MERKLE and CORTEN (see [[MERKLE and CORTEN – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (MC))
::- KANAZAWA (see [[KANAZAWA – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (K))
*[[JTJ-Concept]]
}}

== K ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Kausch, Hans-Henning]]
*KIRCHHOFF's Law of Radiation (see [[Thermography]])
*[[KNOOP Hardness]]
*[[KANAZAWA – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
}}

== L ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Lamb Waves (see [[Ultrasonic Plate Waves Sensors]])
*LAMBERT-BEER's Law (see [[Light Absorption]])
*[[Laser Angle-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Cross-Unit]]
*[[Laser Doppler-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Double-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Extensometry]]
*[[Laser Extensometry – Local Strain Control]]
*[[Laser Heterogeneity of Strain Distribution]]
*[[Laser Longitudinal–Transverse Scanner]]
*[[Laser Multi-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Parallel-Scanner]]
*[[Layer Silicate-reinforced Polymers]]
*[[Laser Sintering Process]]
*[[Laser TMA-Scanner]]
*[[Levels of Knowledge in Fracture Mechanics]]
*[[Light Absorption]]
*[[Light Remission]]
*[[Light Transmission]]
*Linear-elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) (see [[Fracture Mechanics]])
*[[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour]]
*Liquid Pycnometer Method (see [[Density]])
*Load Cell (see [[Elektro-Mechanical Force Transducer and Piezoelectric Force Transducer]])
*[[Load Framework]]
*Low-pressure Capillary Rheometer (see [[Capillary Rheometer]])
}}

== M ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Machine Compliance]]
*[[Macrodispersion Degree Elastomers]]
*[[Magnification Microscope]]
*[[Manufacturer of Material Testing Machines]]
*[[Martens, Adolf]]
*[[Material Science & Plastics]]
*[[Materials Science]]
*[[Material Parameter]]
*[[Materials Technology & Materials Science]]
*[[Material Testing Machine]]
*[[Material & Werkstoff]]
*[[Material Value]]
*[[Materials Testing]]
*[[MAXWELL Model]]
*[[Measure]]
*[[Measured Value]]
*[[Measured Value Accuracy]]
*[[Measured Variable]]
*[[Measurement Deviation]]
*[[Measuring Accuracy]]
*[[Measuring Device Monitoring]]
*[[Measuring Uncertainty]]
*Melt Flow Index (see [[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]] and [[Melt Volume-Flow Rate]])
*[[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]]
*Melt Temperatur (see [[Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)]] and [[Crystallinity]])
*[[Melt Volume-Flow Rate]]
*[[Menges, Georg]]
*[[MERKLE and CORTEN – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
*MFR (see [[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]])
*[[Michler, Goerg Hannes]]
*Microcrack (see [[Crack]])
*[[Micro-Damage Limit]]
*Microhardness (see [[Hardness]])
*Micro-IRHD (see [[IRHD Hardness]])
*[[Micromechanics & Nanomechanics]]
*[[Microplastic & Nanoplastic]]
*[[Micropores]]
*[[Microscopic Structure]]
*[[Microtomy]]
*[[Mixed-Mode Crack Propagation]]
*[[MMB-Specimen]]
*[[Mobile Hardness Measurement]]
*Morphology (see [[Microscopic Structure]])
*Moulded Part (see [[Moulding Compound]])
*[[Moulding Compound]]
*Modulus of Compressibility (see [[Energy Elasticity]])
* Modulus of Elasticity (see [[Elastic Modulus]])
*[[Mohs, Carl Friedrich Christian]]
*[[Moulding Compound Test]]
*[[MPK-Procedure MPK-ICIT]]
*[[MPK-Procedure MPK-ITIT]]
* MTS (Maximum Tensile Stress) Criterion (see [[Mixed-Mode Crack Propagation]]
*[[Multiaxial Stress State]]
*[[Multiple Crazing]]
*[[Multiple Fracture UD Tapes]]
*[[Multipurpose Test Specimen]]
}}

== N ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Nanocomposite (see [[Layer Silicate-reinforced Thermoplastics]])
*Necking Elongation (see [[Tensile Test Uniform Elongation]])
*[[Non-destructive Polymer Testing]]
*[[Non-destructive Testing (NDT)]]
*Normative Strain (see [[Tensile Strength]])
*[[Notch]]
*[[Notch Geometry]]
*Notch Impact Strength (see [[Notched Impact Test]])
*Notch Insertion (see [[Notching]])
*[[Notch Sensitivity]]
*[[Notched Impact Test]]
*[[Notched Tensile Impact Test]]
*[[Notching]]
*[[Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy]] (NMR Spectroscopy)
}}

== O ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Object Raster Method]]
*Orientation (see [[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations]])
*Overview about J-Integral Evaluation Methods (see [[J-Integral Evaluation Methods (Overview)]])
}}

==P==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*PARIS–ERDOGAN Equation (see [[Fatigue Crack Propagation Elastomers]])
*Parameter (see [[Material Parameter]])
*[[Particle-filled Thermoplastics]]
*[[Peel Angle]]
*[[Peel Behaviour – Modelling]]
*[[Peel-Cling Test]]
*[[Peel-Cling Test Cyclic]]
*[[Peel-Cling Test Extented]]
*Peel Curve (see [[Peel Force – Fracture Path Diagram]])
*[[Peel Force]]
*[[Peel Force – Fracture Path Diagram]]
*[[Peeling Process]]
*[[Peel Properties of Peel Systems]]
*[[Peel Test]]
*Pendulum Hammer Velocity (see [[ICIT – Influence of Pendulum Hammer Velocity]])
*[[Pennsylvania Edge Notch Tensile (PENT) Test]]
*[[Peripheral Fibre Strain]]
*[[Phase Boundary Surface]]
*[[Piezoelectric Ceramic]]
*[[Piezoelectric Ceramic Transducer]]
*Piezoelectric Effect (see [[Piezoelectric Force Transducer]] and [[Piezo Ceramics]])
*[[Piezoelectric Force Transducer]]
*PLANCK's constant (see [[Resolution Microscope]])
*[[Plane Stress and Strain State]]
*[[Plastic Component]]
*Plastic Deformation (see [[Deformation]])
*[[Plastic Films & Varnishes – Surface Technology]]
*[[Plastics]]
*[[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms]]
*[[Plastic Zone]]
*[[Plastography]]
*[[Poisson's Ratio]]
*[[Polarisation Optical Examination]]
*[[Polymer]]
*[[Polymer Blend]]
*[[Polymer Diagnostic]]
*[[Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg]]
*[[Polymers & Structure]]
*[[Polymer Testing]]
*[[Processing Shrinkage]]
*[[Producer Material Testing Machines]] (see: [[Manufacturer Material Testing Machines]])
*Proof Tracking Index (CTI) (see [[Creep Current Resistance]])
*[[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique]]
*[[Puncture Impact Test]]
*[[Pure Shear-Specimen]]
}}

== Q ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Quasi-static Test Methods]]
*Quasi-static Short-term tests (see [[Elastic Modulus]])
}}

== R ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Radusch, Hans-Joachim]]
*[[Ramps, Clods and Steps]]
*[[Raster Reflection Method]]
*R-Curve Concept (see [[Crack Resistance (R) Curve]])
*[[Rebound Resilience Elastomers]]
*[[Reflection Light]]
*Reflection Sound Waves (see [[Ultrasonic Waves Reflection]])
*[[Refraction Index]]
*Refraction Law (see [[Refraction Light]] and [[Refraction Sound Waves]])
*[[Refraction Light]]
*[[Refraction Sound Waves]]
*Refractive Index (see [[Refraction Index]])
*[[Reincke, Katrin]]
*[[Relaxation Behaviour Determination]]
*[[Relaxation Plastics]]
*Residual Compressive Strength (see [[Compression After Impact Test]])
*Residual Stress ( see [[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations]])
*[[Resolution Laser Extensometer Device System]]
*[[Resolution Material Testing Machine]]
*[[Resolution Microscope]]
*[[Resonance Analysis]] (Acoustic)
*[[RICE, PARIS and MERKLE – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
*Rise Time Electronic Measuring Chain (see [[ICIT – Experimental Conditions]])
*[[ROCKWELL Hardness]]
*[[Roll Ring Test]]
*[[Round Specimen]]
*[[Round Robin Test]]
}}

== S ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)]]
*[[Scanning Electron Microscopy]] (SEM)
*[[SCB specimen]]
*[[Scratch Hardness]]
*[[Scratch Resistance]]
*[[Sealed Beam]]
*Secant Modulus (see [[Flexural Modulus]], [[Elastic Modulus]] and [[Compression Test]])
*[[Seidler, Sabine]]
*[[SENB-Specimen]] (Single-Edge-Notched-Bend)-specimen
*[[SENT-Specimen]] (Single-Edge-Notched-Tension)-specimen
*[[Servo-hydraulic Testing Machine]]
*[[Shear Band Formation]]
*Shear Fracture (see [[Fracture Types]])
*[[Shear Modulus]]
*[[Shear Viscosity]]
*[[Shearography]]
*[[SHORE Hardness]]
*[[SHORE Hardness – Material Development Elastomers]]
*Short Symbols – Plastics (see [[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms]])
*Short-beam Bend Test (see [[Interlaminar Shear Strength]])
*[[Short-fibre Reinforced Plastics]]
*[[Shrink Voids]]
*Shrinkage (see [[Processing Shrinkage]])
*[[Shrinkage Test]]
*Simple Beam Theory (SBT) (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*[[Sink Mark]]
*[[Slenderness Ratio]]
*[[Slow Crack Growth]]
*[[Smart Materials]]
*SNEDDON-Williams-Equations (see [[Crack Model according to GRIFFITH]])
*SNELLIUS' Law of Refraction (see [[Ultrasonic Birefringence]], [[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors]] and [[Refraction Light]])
*Sonography (see [[Ultrasound Testing]])
*Sound Absorption Coefficient (see [[Elastic Modulus]])
*[[Sound Emission]]
*[[Sound Emission Analysis]]
*[[Sound Emission Experimental Conditions]]
*[[Sound Emission Testing]]
*[[Sound Power]]
*[[Sound Pressure]]
*[[Sound Test]]
*[[Sound Velocity]]
*[[Specimen]]
*[[Specimen Clamping]]
*[[Specimen Compliance]]
*[[Specimen for Fracture Mechanics Tests]]
*[[Specimen for Laser Sintering]]
*Specimen Shapes For Fatigue Tests (see [[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests]])
*Speed (see [[Velocity]])
*[[Spherulitic Structure]]
*SPLIT-HOPKINSON Pressure Bar (SHPB) Test (see [[Strain Rate Applications]])
*[[Squirter Technique]]
*Stability Time (see [[Thermostability PVC]])
*[[Standard Atmospheres]]
*[[Standard Small Bar]]
*STEFAN-BOLTZMANN Constant (see [[Thermography]])
*[[Stepped Isothermal Method, Macro Indentation Method]]
*[[Stepped Isothermal Method, Tensile Stress]]
*[[Stiffness]] (see also [[Machine Compliance]] and [[Specimen Compliance]])
*[[Strain Gauge]]
*[[Strain Hardening Test (SHT)]]
*[[Strain Rate Applications]]
*[[Strain Rate Basics]]
*[[Strength]]
*[[Stretch Zone]]
*[[Stress]]
*[[Stress Cracking Corrosion]]
*Stress Cracking Resistance (see [[Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance]])
*Stress Intensity Factor (see [[Fracture Mechanics]] and [[SENB-Specimen]])
*[[SUMPTER and TURNER – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (ST) – J-integral estimation method
*[[Support Distance]]
*Support Span (see [[Support Distance]])
*[[Surface]]
*[[Surface Energy]]
*[[Surface Resistance]]
*[[Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension]]
*[[Surface Testing Technology]]
*Swelling (see [[Water Absorption]])
}}

== T ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[TABOR Relationship]]
*Tangent Modulus (see [[Elastic Modulus]] and [[Shear Modulus]])
*[[T-Peel Test]]
*[[Tear Test]]
*Tearing Energy (see [[Trouser Specimen]])
*[[Temperature Conductivity]]
*[[Temperature-modulated Differential Scanning Calorimetry (TMDSC)]]
*[[Tensile Creep Test]]
*[[Tensile Impact Test]]
*Tensile Strain at Break (see [[Tensile Strength]])
*[[Tensile Strength]]
*[[Tensile Test]]
*[[Tensile Test and Sound Emission Analysis]]
*[[Tensile Test Compliance]]
*[[Tensile Test Control]]
*[[Tensile Test Event-related Interpretation]]
*[[Tensile Test Influences]]
*[[Tensile Test Overlapping Creep Relaxation]]
*[[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations]]
*[[Tensile Test True Stress–Strain Diagram]]
*[[Tensile Test Uniform Elongation]]
*Tensile Test Specimen (see [[Multipurpose Test Specimen]])
*[[Test Climate]]
*[[Testing]]
*Testing of Adhesive Bonds (see [[SCB-Specimen]])
*Testing of Composite Materials (see [[Composite Materials Testing]])
*[[Testing Microcomponents]]
*[[Testing Plastic Packaging]]
*[[Test Piece]]
*Test Specimen (see [[Specimen]])
*[[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests]]
*[[Test Speed]]
*[[TDCB-Specimen]] (Tapered-Double-Cantilever Beam-specimen)
*[[Thermal Conductivity]]
*Thermal Diffusivity (see [[Temperature Conductivity]])
*[[Thermal Expansion Coefficient]]
*[[Thermal Strain Analysis]]
*[[Thermal Stress Analysis]]
*[[Thermoelastic Effect]]
*[[Thermography]]
*[[Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)]]
*[[Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)]]
*[[Thermoplastic Material]]
*[[Thermosets]]
*[[Thermostability PVC]]
*[[Threads, Tips and Films]]
*Three-point Bend Test (see [[Bend Test]] and [[Bend Test – Influences]])
*Three-point Bend Specimen (see [[SENB-Specimen]])
*[[Time–Temperature Shift Law]]
*Titration Method (see [[Density]])
*TODCB-Specimen (see [[SCB-Specimen]])
*[[Toughness]]
*[[Toughness Temperature Dependence]]
*[[Tracking]]
*[[Transmission Light]]
*[[Transmission Electron Microscopy]]
*[[Transmission Sound Waves]]
*Transverse Contraction (see [[Poisson's Ratio]])
*[[Trapezoidal Specimen]]
*Triaxial Loading (see [[Multiaxial Stress State]])
*Tribological Stress (see [[Stress]])
*[[Trouser Specimen]]
}}

==U==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Birefringence]]
*[[Ultrasonic Compact Impedance (UCI) Hardness]]
*[[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Direct Coupling]]
*Ultrasonic Imaging Inspection (see [[Imaging Ultrasonic Testing]])
*[[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique]]
*[[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Laser Excitation]]
*Ultrasonic Microscopy (see [[Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)]])
*[[Ultrasonic Modulation]]
*[[Ultrasonic Phased Array Sensors]]
*Ultrasonic Pulse-echo Technique (see [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique]])
*[[Ultrasonic Runtime Measurement]]
*[[Ultrasonic Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Shock Wave Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique]]
*[[Ultrasonic Transmission Technique]]
*[[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Plate Waves Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Wall Thickness Measurement]]
*[[Ultrasonic Waves Reflection]]
*[[Ultrasonic Weld Inspection]]
*[[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters]]
*[[Ultrasound Guided Waves]]
*[[Ultrasound Testing]]
*[[Uniaxial Stress State]]
*Uniform Elongation (see [[Tensile Test Uniform Elongation]])
*[[Universal Hardness]]
*Universal Testing Machine (see [[Material Testing Machine]])
*UODCB-Specimen (see [[SCB-Specimen]])
}}

==V==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Vacuoles (see [[Shrink Voids]])
*Value (see [[Material Value]])
*[[Valve Movement Test]]
*[[Velocity]]
*[[Verification]]
*[[Vibration Fracture]]
*[[Vibration-induced Creep Fracture]]
*[[Vibration Strength]]
*Vibration Test (see [[Continuous Vibration Test]])
*[[Vicat Softening Temperature]]
*[[Vickers Hardness]]
*[[Video Extensometry]]
*Viscoelasticity (see [[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour]] and [[Viscoelastic Material Behaviour]])
*[[Viscoelastic Material Behaviour]]
*Viscous Deformation (see [[Deformation]])
*[[Viscosity]]
*[[Volume Resistance]]
*[[Volume Swelling Elastomers]]
*[[Vu-Khanh Method]]
*[[Vulcanization]]
}}

==W==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Water Absorption]]
*[[Waves and Arrest Lines]]
*Wear (see [[Abrasion Elastomers]])
*[[WinICIT-Software]]
*Wheatstone Bridge (see [[Strain Gauge]])
*[[Weld Line]]
* WU & FOWKES method (see [[Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension]])
}}

==Y==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*YOUNG-DUPRÉ Equation (see [[Surface Energy]])
*Young's Modulus (see [[IRHD Hardness]] and [[Elastic Modulus]])
*Yield Fracture Mechanics (see [[Fracture Mechanics]])
*Yield Point (see [[Yield Stress]])
*[[Yield Stress]]
}}

== Categories ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[:Category:Guest Contributions|Guest Contributions]]

*[[:Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics|Acoustic Test Methods/Ultrasonics]]
*[[:Category:Ageing|Ageing]]
*[[:Category:Bend Test|Bend Test]]
*[[:Category:Colour and Gloss|Colour and Gloss]]
*[[:Category:Compression Test|Compression Test]]
*[[:Category:Creep Behaviour Plastics|Creep Behaviour Plastics]]
*[[:Category:Damage Analysis_Component Failure|Damage Analysis/Component Failure]]
*[[:Category:Deformation|Deformation]]
*[[:Category:Elastomers|Elastomers]]
*[[:Category:Electrical and Dielectrical Testing|Electrical and Dielectrical Testing]]
*[[:Category:Fatigue|Fatigue]]
*[[:Category:Film Testing|Film Testing]]
*[[:Category:Fire Behaviour|Fire Behaviour]]
*[[:Category:Fracture Mechanics|Fracture Mechanics]]
*[[:Category:Hardness|Hardness]]
*[[:Category:Hybrid Methods|Hybrid Methods]]
*[[:Category:Impact Tests|Impact Tests]]
*[[:Category:Implant Testing|Implant Testing]]
*[[:Category:Instrumented Impact Test|Instrumented Impact Test]]
*[[:Category:Laser Extensometry|Laser Extensometry]]
*[[:Category:Light|Light]]
*[[:Category:Material Scientists Polymer Scientists|Material Scientists/Polymer Scientists]]
*[[:Category:Materials Science_Materials Engineering|Materials Science/Materials Engineering]]
*[[:Category:Measurement Testing Technology|Measurement Testing Technology]] (Measurement Data Aquisition)
*[[:Category:Morphology and Micromechanics|Morphology and Micromechanics]]
*[[:Category:Optical Field Measurement Methods|Optical Field Measurement Methods]]
*[[:Category:Peel Test|Peel Test]]
*[[:Category:Plastics|Plastics]]
*[[:Category:Process-related Properties|Process-related Properties]]
*[[:Category:Scientific Disciplines|Scientific Disciplines]]
*[[:Category:Specimen|Specimen]]
*[[:Category:Specimen Preparation|Specimen Preparation]]
*[[:Category:Stiffness Compliance|Stiffness/Compliance]]
*[[:Category:Stress Cracking Resistance|Stress Cracking Resistance]]
*[[:Category:Surface Testing Technology|Surface Testing Technology]]
*[[:Category:Tensile Test|Tensile Test]]
*[[:Category:Thermoanalytical Methods|Thermoanalytical Methods]]
*[[:Category:Velocity|Velocity]]
}}

Content

2026-01-09T13:22:26Z

Oluschinski:

Welcome to the PSM Wiki-lexicon "Polymer Testing & Diagnostics" from [http://www.psm-merseburg.de Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg] ([[Polymer_Service_GmbH_Merseburg|PSM]])!

{{PSM_Infobox}}

{{TOC_eng}}

== A ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[ABBE Refractometer]]
*Abbreviated Terms – Plastics (see [[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms]])
*[[Abrasion Elastomers]]
*Absorption Light (see [[Light Absorption]])
*[[Absorption Sound Waves]]
*[[Accuracy Class]]
*[[Acoustic Emission]]
*Acoustic Microscopy (see [[Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)]])
*[[Acoustic Properties]]
*Acoustic Resonance Analysis (see [[Resonance Analysis]] (Acoustic)
*[[Accreditation and Certification]]
*ADAM-GIBBS-realition (see [[Crystallinity]])
*[[Adhesive Energy Release Rate]]
*[[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]]
*Adhesion Glass Fibre (see [[Fibre–Matrix Adhesion]])
*[[Adjustment]]
*[[Ageing]]
*[[Ageing Elastomers]]
*[[Air-Ultrasound]]
*[[Air-Ultrasound – Device Technology]]
*[[Alpha ROCKWELL Hardness]]
*[[Altstädt, Volker]]
*Anisotropic Deformation (see [[Deformation]])
*[[Anisotropy]]
*[[A-Scan Technique]]
*[[Arcan-Specimen]]
*Arc-shaped Specimen (see [[C-shaped Test Specimen]])
*Arrest Lines (see [[Fracture Types]], [[Fractography]] and [[Waves and Arrest Lines]])
*[[Ashing Method]]
*[[Atomic Force Microscopy]] (AFM)
}}

== B ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Bakelite]]
*[[Ball Indentation Hardness]]
*Ball Indentation Hardness IRHD (see [[IRHD Hardness]])
*[[Ball or Pin-Impression Method]]
*BARENBLATT Crack Model (see [[Crack Model according to BARENBLATT]])
*[[Barrier Plastics]]
*[[Barcol Hardness]]
*BCS Crack Model (see [[Crack Models]])
*[[BEGLEY and LANDES – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
* Bending Stiffness (see [[Stiffness]] and [[Bend Test Compliance]])
*[[Bend Loading]]
*[[Bend Test]]
*[[Bend Test and Light Microscopy]]
*[[Bend Test and Sound Emission Analysis]]
*[[Bend Test Compliance]]
*[[Bend Test – Influences]]
*[[Bend Test – Shear Stress]]
*[[Bend Test – Specimen Preparation]]
*[[Bend Test – Specimen Shapes]]
*[[Bend Test – Test Influences]]
*[[Bend Test – Yield Stress]]
*[[Bent Strip Method]]
*[[Bierögel, Christian]]
*[[Bio-Plastics]]
*[[Bio-Plastics – Impact-Modified]]
*Blowholes (see [[Shrink Voids]])
*[[Blumenauer, Horst]]
*Blunting Crack Tip (see [[Stretch Zone]], [[in-situ Tensile Test in ESEM with AE]] and [[Crack Opening]])
*[[BOLTZMANN's Superposition Principle]]
*Boundary Surface (see [[Phase Boundary Surface]])
*[[Brittle Fracture Promoting Factors]]
*[[Brittle-Tough Transition]]
*Brittle Fracture (see [[Fracture Types]], [[Component Failure]] and [[Fractography]])
*[[Brittle-Tough Transition Temperature]]
*[[B-Scan Technique]]
*[[BUCHHOLZ Hardness]]
*[[Bulk Density]]
}}

== C ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Calibration]]
*[[Campus®]]
*[[Capillary Rheometer]]
*Characteristic Values (see [[Material Value]])
*Charpy Impact Test (see [[Impact Test]])
*[[Charpy Testing]]
*Clamping Jaws (see [[Specimen Clamping]])
*Clip-on Strain Gauge (see [[Tensile Test#Tensile test, path measurement technique|Tensile Test, Path Measurement Technique]])
*Cohesive Strength (see [[Fracture]])
*Cold Stretching (see [[Tensile Test]])
*[[Colour]]
*[[Colour Penetration Test]]
*[[Compact Tension Specimen]]
*[[Compact Tension Shear (CTS) Specimen]]
*Comparative Tracking Index (CTI) (see [[Creep Current Resistance]])
*Compliance (see [[Tensile Test Compliance]] and [[Specimen Compliance]])
*Compliance Method (see [[J-Compliance Method]])
*[[Component Failure]]
*[[Component Testing]]
*[[Composite Materials Testing]]
*[[Composite Materials Testing – Requirements for Materials Testing Machines]]
*Composite Probes (see [[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors]])
*[[Compression After Impact Test]]
*[[Compression Hardness]]
*[[Compression Strength]]
*[[Compression Test]]
*[[Compression Test Arrangement]]
*[[Compression Test Compliance]]
*Compressive and Buckling Stiffness (see [[Stiffness]])
*Constraint Factor (see [[J-Integral Concept]] and [[Toughness Temperature Dependence]])
*Constant Tensile Load Method (see [[Tensile Creep Test]])
*[[Continuous Vibration Test]]
*[[Continuum Mechanics]]
*[[Conventional Hardness Testing]]
*Corrected Beam Theory (CBT) (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*[[Correspondence Principle]]
*[[Crack]]
*[[Crack Formation]]
*Crack Growth (see [[Crack Propagation]])
*[[Crack Initiation]]
*[[Crack Models]]
*[[Crack Model according to BARENBLATT]]
*[[Crack Model according to DUGDALE]]
*[[Crack Model according to GRIFFITH]]
*[[Crack Model according to IRWIN and Mc CLINTOCK]]
*[[Crack Opening]]
*[[Crack Opening Modes]]
*[[Crack Propagation]]
*[[Crack Propagation Energy]]
*[[Crack Resistance (R) Curve]]
*[[Crack Resistance Curve – Examples]]
*[[Crack Resistance Curve – Experimental Methods]]
*[[Crack Resistance Curve – Elastomers Quasistatic]]
*[[Crack Tip Opening Displacement Concept (CTOD)]]
*[[Crack Toughness]]
*[[Craze-Types]]
*Craze (see [[Micromechanics & Nanomechanics]])
*[[Crazing]]
*CRB-Test (Crack Round Bar Test) (see [[Full Notch Creep Test (FNCT)]] and [[Pennsylvania Edge Notch Tensile (PENT) Test]])
*[[Creep Behaviour – Creep Compression Test]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Determination]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Flexural Creep Test]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Recovery Test]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Tensile Creep Test]]
*[[Creep Compression Test]]
*[[Creep Current Resistance]]
*Creep Modul (see [[Creep Behaviour – Determination]])
*Creep Path Formation (see [[Tracking]])
*[[Creep Plastics]]
*[[Crescent Specimen]]
*[[Crosshead Speed]]
*[[Crystallinity]]
*[[Cross-linking Elastomers]]
*[[C-shaped Test Specimen]]
*[[C-Scan Technique]]
*[[CT-Specimen]]
*[[Curing]]
}}

== D ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Damage Analysis (see [[Failure Analysis – Basics]])
*Damage Analysis of Plastic Products (see [[Failure Analysis Plastics Products, VDI Guideline 3822]])
*[[DCB-Specimen]] (Double-Cantilever Beam)
*De BROGLIE equation (see [[Resolution Microscope]])
*Defect Density (see [[Tensile Test Event-related Interpretation]])
*[[Deformation]]
*[[Deformation Mechanisms]]
*[[Deformation Rate]]
*[[Deformation Velocity]]
*[[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]]
*[[Density]]
*[[Depth of Field Microscope]]
*[[Dielectric Loss Factor]]
*[[Dielectric Properties]]
*[[Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)]]
*[[Dispersion]]
*[[Drives Materials Testing Machines]]
*[[D-Scan Technique]]
*[[Ductility Plastics]]
*DUGDALE Crack Model (see [[Crack Model according to DUGDALE]])
*[[Durability Elastomers]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – General Principles]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Bend Loading]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Tensile Stress]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Tensile Test]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Torsional Stress]]
*Dynstat Impact Test (see [[Impact Test]])
}}

==E==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Effective Crack Length]]
*[[Ehrenstein, Gottfried W.]]
*[[Elasticity]]
*[[Elastic Modulus]]
*[[Elastic Modulus – Examples and Material Values]]
*[[Elastic Modulus – Ultrasonic Measurement]]
*[[Elastomers]]
*[[Elastomer Dispersion Filler]]
*[[Electrical Conductivity]]
*[[Electrical Strength]]
*[[Electro-mechanical Force Transducer]]
*[[Electron Microscopy]]
*[[Electronic Instrumentation]]
*[[Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI)]]
*Elongation at Break (see [[Tensile Strength]])
*Emission (see [[Acoustic Emission]])
*[[ENF-Specimen]] (End-Notched Flexure)
*[[Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX)]]
*[[Energy Elasticity]]
*[[Energy Release Rate]]
*Entanglements (see [[Polymers & Structure]], [[Entropy Elasticity]] and [[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]])
*[[Entropy Elasticity]]
*Entry Point (see [[Sink Mark]])
*[[Environmental-SEM (ESEM)]]
*[[Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance]]
*[[Equivalent Energy Concept – Application Limits]]
*[[Equivalent Energy Concept – Basics]]
*[[Errors]]
*[[Error Limit]]
*EULER's Buckling (see [[Stiffness]])
*Exfoliation (see [[Laser Silicate-reinforced Polymers]])
*Experimental Compliance Method (ECM) (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*[[Extended CTOD Concept]]
}}

==F==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Failure Analysis – Basics]]
*[[Failure Analysis Plastics Products, VDI Guideline 3822]]
*[[Fatigue]]
*[[Fatigue Strength]]
*[[Fatigue Crack Propagation Elastomers]]
*Fibre Formation (see [[Fracture Types]], [[Craze Types]] and [[Fracture Parables]])
*[[Fibre–Matrix Adhesion]]
*[[Fibre-reinforced Plastics]]
*[[Fibre-reinforced Plastics Fracture Model]]
*[[Fibre Orientation]]
*Fibre Content (see [[Ashing Method]])
*Fibrillation (see [[Crazing]], [[Craze-Types]] and [[Multiple Crazing]])
*[[Fixed-arm Peel Test]]
*Filler (see [[Particle-filled Thermoplastics]])
*[[Film Testing]]
*[[Flexural Creep Test]]
*[[Flexural Modulus]]
*[[Flexural Strength]]
*Flexural Test (see [[Bend Test]])
*FLORY-HUGGINS Interaction Parameter (see [[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]])
*FLORY-REHNER Theory (see [[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]])
*Four Point Bend Test (see [[Bend Test]] and [[Bend Test – Influences]])
*[[Fracture]]
*[[Fractography]]
*[[Fracture Behaviour]]
*[[Fracture Behaviour of Plastics Components]]
*Fracture Energy (see [[Fracture Formation]] and [[Fracture]])
*[[Fracture Formation]]
*[[Fracture Mechanical Testing]]
*[[Fracture Mechanics]]
*Fracture Mechanics Test Specimens (see [[Specimen for Fracture Mechanics Tests]])
*[[Fracture Modes]]
*[[Fracture Mirror]]
*[[Fracture Parables]]
*[[Fracture Process Zone]]
*[[Fracture Safety Criterion]]
*[[Fracture Surface]]
*Fracture Toughness (see [[Fracture Mechanics]])
*[[Fracture Types]]
*[[Free Falling Dart Method]]
*[[Freeze-Time]]
*[[Frequency Analysis]]
*[[Frequency Response Control]]
*Friction (see [[Bend Test – Influences]])
*[[Friction Force]]
*[[F-Scan Technique]]
*[[FTIR Spectroscopy]]
*[[Full Notch Creep Test (FNCT)]]
}}

==G==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Gas Bubbles]]
*[[Geometry Criterion]]
*[[Geometry Function]]
*Glass Fibre Content (see [[Ashing Method]])
*[[Glass Fibre Orientation]]
*[[Glass Transition Temperature]]
*[[Gloss]]
*[[Gloss Measurement]]
*[[Glowing Hot-Wire Test]]
*[[Goodyear, Charles Nelson]]
*[[Grellmann, Wolfgang]]
*[[Griffith, Alan Arnold]]
*GRIFFITH's crack model (see [[Crack Model according to GRIFFITH]])
*[[GRIFFITH's Criteria]]
*[[GRIFFITH's Theory]]

}}

==H==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Hardness]]
*Hardness Revaluation (see [[Hardness#Hardness revaluation|Hardness]])
*HAGEN-POISSEUILLE-Equation (see [[Capillary Rheometer]])
*Heat Conductivity (see [[Thermal Conductivity]])
*[[Heat Distortion Temperature HDT]]
*[[Heat Resistance]]
*[[HERTZIAN Pressure]]
*[[Heterogeneity]]
*[[HF-Scan]]
*High-pressure Capillary Rheometer (see [[Capillary Rheometer]])
*[[High-speed Tensile Test]]
*[[HOOKE's Law]]
*[[Hole Formation Films]]
*[[Hole Formation Plastics]]
*HRR Crack Model (see [[Crack Models]])
*HUYGENS' Principle (see [[Sound Pressure]])
*[[Hybrid Methods]] of Plastic Diagnostics
*[[Hybrid Methods, Examples]]
}}

== I ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*ICIT (see [[Instrumented Charpy Impact Test]])
*[[ICIT – Energy Method]]
*[[ICIT – Experimental Conditions]]
*[[ICIT – Extended Stop-Block Method]]
*[[ICIT – Influence of Pendulum Hammer Velocity]]
*[[ICIT – Limits of Fracture Mechanics Evaluation]]
*[[ICIT – Nonlinear Material Behaviour]]
*[[ICIT – Specimen Length Method]]
*[[ICIT – Stop Block Method]]
*[[ICIT – Support Span Method]]
*[[ICIT – Types of Impact Load–Deflection Diagrams]]
*[[ICIT with AE]]
*Immersion Method (see [[Density]])
*[[Imaging Ultrasonic Testing]]
*[[Impact Loading Free-falling Dart Test]]
*[[Impact Loading High-Speed Testing]]
*[[Impact Loading Pendulum Impact Tester]]
*[[Impact Loading Plastics]]
*[[Impact Test]]
*In-situ Peel Test (see [[Peeling Process]])
*[[In-situ Tensile Test in ESEM with AE]]
*[[In-situ Tensile Test in NMR]]
*[[In-situ Ultramicrotomy]]
*[[Indentation Fracture Mechanics]]
*[[Indentation Modulus]]
*[[Indenter]]
*Index of Refraction (see [[Refraction Index]])
*Induction Time (see [[Thermostability PVC]])
*[[Inertial Load]]
*[[Initial Crack Length]]
*Instrumentation (see [[Electronic Instrumentation]])
*[[Instrumented Adhesion Test]]
*[[Instrumented Charpy Impact Test]] (ICIT)
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement – Creep]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement – Indentation Depth Measurement with Modified Contact Foot]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement – Relaxation]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement with Tempering]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Testing – Method & Material Parameters]]
*[[Instrumented Puncture Impact Test]]
*[[Instrumented Scratch Testing]]
*[[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test (ITIT)]]
*[[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test (ITIT), Examples]]
*[[Insulation Resistance]]
*Intercalated Structure (see [[Layer Silicate-reinforced Polymers]])
*Interface (see [[Phase Boundary Surface]])
*[[Interlaminar Shear Strength]]
*[[IRHD Hardness]]
*IRWIN and Mc CLINTOCK crack model (see [[Crack Model according to IRWIN and Mc CLINTOCK]])
*IRWIN-KIES Equation (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*ITIT (see [[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test]])
*IZOD Impact Test (see [[Impact Test]])
}}

==J==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[J-Compliance Method]]
*[[J-Integral Concept]]
*[[J-Integral Evaluation Methods (Overview)]]
*J-integral Estimation Methods of
::- BEGLEY and LANDES (see [[BEGLEY and LANDES – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (BL))
::- RICE, PARIS and MERKLE (see [[RICE, PARIS and MERKLE – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (RPM))
::- SUMPTER and TURNER (see [[SUMPTER and TURNER – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (ST))
::- MERKLE and CORTEN (see [[MERKLE and CORTEN – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (MC))
::- KANAZAWA (see [[KANAZAWA – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (K))
*[[JTJ-Concept]]
}}

== K ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Kausch, Hans-Henning]]
*KIRCHHOFF's Law of Radiation (see [[Thermography]])
*[[KNOOP Hardness]]
*[[KANAZAWA – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
}}

== L ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Lamb Waves (see [[Ultrasonic Plate Waves Sensors]])
*LAMBERT-BEER's Law (see [[Light Absorption]])
*[[Laser Angle-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Cross-Unit]]
*[[Laser Doppler-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Double-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Extensometry]]
*[[Laser Extensometry – Local Strain Control]]
*[[Laser Heterogeneity of Strain Distribution]]
*[[Laser Longitudinal–Transverse Scanner]]
*[[Laser Multi-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Parallel-Scanner]]
*[[Layer Silicate-reinforced Polymers]]
*[[Laser Sintering Process]]
*[[Laser TMA-Scanner]]
*[[Levels of Knowledge in Fracture Mechanics]]
*[[Light Absorption]]
*[[Light Remission]]
*[[Light Transmission]]
*Linear-elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) (see [[Fracture Mechanics]])
*[[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour]]
*Liquid Pycnometer Method (see [[Density]])
*Load Cell (see [[Elektro-Mechanical Force Transducer and Piezoelectric Force Transducer]])
*[[Load Framework]]
*Low-pressure Capillary Rheometer (see [[Capillary Rheometer]])
}}

== M ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Machine Compliance]]
*[[Macrodispersion Degree Elastomers]]
*[[Magnification Microscope]]
*[[Manufacturer of Material Testing Machines]]
*[[Martens, Adolf]]
*[[Material Science & Plastics]]
*[[Materials Science]]
*[[Material Parameter]]
*[[Materials Technology & Materials Science]]
*[[Material Testing Machine]]
*[[Material & Werkstoff]]
*[[Material Value]]
*[[Materials Testing]]
*[[MAXWELL Model]]
*[[Measure]]
*[[Measured Value]]
*[[Measured Value Accuracy]]
*[[Measured Variable]]
*[[Measurement Deviation]]
*[[Measuring Accuracy]]
*[[Measuring Device Monitoring]]
*[[Measuring Uncertainty]]
*Melt Flow Index (see [[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]] and [[Melt Volume-Flow Rate]])
*[[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]]
*Melt Temperatur (see [[Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)]] and [[Crystallinity]])
*[[Melt Volume-Flow Rate]]
*[[Menges, Georg]]
*[[MERKLE and CORTEN – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
*MFR (see [[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]])
*[[Michler, Goerg Hannes]]
*Microcrack (see [[Crack]])
*[[Micro-Damage Limit]]
*Microhardness (see [[Hardness]])
*Micro-IRHD (see [[IRHD Hardness]])
*[[Micromechanics & Nanomechanics]]
*[[Microplastic & Nanoplastic]]
*[[Micropores]]
*[[Microscopic Structure]]
*[[Microtomy]]
*[[Mixed-Mode Crack Propagation]]
*[[MMB-Specimen]]
*[[Mobile Hardness Measurement]]
*Morphology (see [[Microscopic Structure]])
*Moulded Part (see [[Moulding Compound]])
*[[Moulding Compound]]
*Modulus of Compressibility (see [[Energy Elasticity]])
* Modulus of Elasticity (see [[Elastic Modulus]])
*[[Mohs, Carl Friedrich Christian]]
*[[Moulding Compound Test]]
*[[MPK-Procedure MPK-ICIT]]
*[[MPK-Procedure MPK-ITIT]]
* MTS (Maximum Tensile Stress) Criterion (see [[Mixed-Mode Crack Propagation]]
*[[Multiaxial Stress State]]
*[[Multiple Crazing]]
*[[Multiple Fracture UD Tapes]]
*[[Multipurpose Test Specimen]]
}}

== N ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Nanocomposite (see [[Layer Silicate-reinforced Thermoplastics]])
*Necking Elongation (see [[Tensile Test Uniform Elongation]])
*[[Non-destructive Polymer Testing]]
*[[Non-destructive Testing (NDT)]]
*Normative Strain (see [[Tensile Strength]])
*[[Notch]]
*[[Notch Geometry]]
*Notch Impact Strength (see [[Notched Impact Test]])
*Notch Insertion (see [[Notching]])
*[[Notch Sensitivity]]
*[[Notched Impact Test]]
*[[Notched Tensile Impact Test]]
*[[Notching]]
*[[Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy]] (NMR Spectroscopy)
}}

== O ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Object Raster Method]]
*Orientation (see [[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations]])
*Overview about J-Integral Evaluation Methods (see [[J-Integral Evaluation Methods (Overview)]])
}}

==P==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*PARIS–ERDOGAN Equation (see [[Fatigue Crack Propagation Elastomers]])
*Parameter (see [[Material Parameter]])
*[[Particle-filled Thermoplastics]]
*[[Peel Angle]]
*[[Peel Behaviour – Modelling]]
*[[Peel-Cling Test]]
*[[Peel-Cling Test Cyclic]]
*[[Peel-Cling Test Extented]]
*Peel Curve (see [[Peel Force – Fracture Path Diagram]])
*[[Peel Force]]
*[[Peel Force – Fracture Path Diagram]]
*[[Peeling Process]]
*[[Peel Properties of Peel Systems]]
*[[Peel Test]]
*Pendulum Hammer Velocity (see [[ICIT – Influence of Pendulum Hammer Velocity]])
*[[Pennsylvania Edge Notch Tensile (PENT) Test]]
*[[Peripheral Fibre Strain]]
*[[Phase Boundary Surface]]
*[[Piezoelectric Ceramic]]
*[[Piezoelectric Ceramic Transducer]]
*Piezoelectric Effect (see [[Piezoelectric Force Transducer]] and [[Piezo Ceramics]])
*[[Piezoelectric Force Transducer]]
*PLANCK's constant (see [[Resolution Microscope]])
*[[Plane Stress and Strain State]]
*[[Plastic Component]]
*Plastic Deformation (see [[Deformation]])
*[[Plastic Films & Varnishes – Surface Technology]]
*[[Plastics]]
*[[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms]]
*[[Plastic Zone]]
*[[Plastography]]
*[[Poisson's Ratio]]
*[[Polarisation Optical Examination]]
*[[Polymer]]
*[[Polymer Blend]]
*[[Polymer Diagnostic]]
*[[Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg]]
*[[Polymers & Structure]]
*[[Polymer Testing]]
*[[Processing Shrinkage]]
*[[Producer Material Testing Machines]] (see: [[Manufacturer Material Testing Machines]])
*Proof Tracking Index (CTI) (see [[Creep Current Resistance]])
*[[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique]]
*[[Puncture Impact Test]]
*[[Pure Shear-Specimen]]
}}

== Q ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Quasi-static Test Methods]]
*Quasi-static Short-term tests (see [[Elastic Modulus]])
}}

== R ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Radusch, Hans-Joachim]]
*[[Ramps, Clods and Steps]]
*[[Raster Reflection Method]]
*R-Curve Concept (see [[Crack Resistance (R) Curve]])
*[[Rebound Resilience Elastomers]]
*[[Reflection Light]]
*Reflection Sound Waves (see [[Ultrasonic Waves Reflection]])
*[[Refraction Index]]
*Refraction Law (see [[Refraction Light]] and [[Refraction Sound Waves]])
*[[Refraction Light]]
*[[Refraction Sound Waves]]
*Refractive Index (see [[Refraction Index]])
*[[Reincke, Katrin]]
*[[Relaxation Behaviour Determination]]
*[[Relaxation Plastics]]
*Residual Compressive Strength (see [[Compression After Impact Test]])
*Residual Stress ( see [[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations]])
*[[Resolution Laser Extensometer Device System]]
*[[Resolution Material Testing Machine]]
*[[Resolution Microscope]]
*[[Resonance Analysis]] (Acoustic)
*[[RICE, PARIS and MERKLE – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
*Rise Time Electronic Measuring Chain (see [[ICIT – Experimental Conditions]])
*[[ROCKWELL Hardness]]
*[[Roll Ring Test]]
*[[Round Specimen]]
*[[Round Robin Test]]
}}

== S ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)]]
*[[Scanning Electron Microscopy]] (SEM)
*[[SCB specimen]]
*[[Scratch Hardness]]
*[[Scratch Resistance]]
*[[Sealed Beam]]
*Secant Modulus (see [[Flexural Modulus]], [[Elastic Modulus]] and [[Compression Test]])
*[[Seidler, Sabine]]
*[[SENB-Specimen]] (Single-Edge-Notched-Bend)-specimen
*[[SENT-Specimen]] (Single-Edge-Notched-Tension)-specimen
*[[Servo-hydraulic Testing Machine]]
*[[Shear Band Formation]]
*Shear Fracture (see [[Fracture Types]])
*[[Shear Modulus]]
*[[Shear Viscosity]]
*[[Shearography]]
*[[SHORE Hardness]]
*[[SHORE Hardness – Material Development Elastomers]]
*Short Symbols – Plastics (see [[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms]])
*Short-beam Bend Test (see [[Interlaminar Shear Strength]])
*[[Short-fibre Reinforced Plastics]]
*[[Shrink Voids]]
*Shrinkage (see [[Processing Shrinkage]])
*[[Shrinkage Test]]
*Simple Beam Theory (SBT) (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*[[Sink Mark]]
*[[Slenderness Ratio]]
*[[Slow Crack Growth]]
*[[Smart Materials]]
*SNEDDON-Williams-Equations (see [[Crack Model according to GRIFFITH]])
*SNELLIUS' Law of Refraction (see [[Ultrasonic Birefringence]], [[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors]] and [[Refraction Light]])
*Sonography (see [[Ultrasound Testing]])
*Sound Absorption Coefficient (see [[Elastic Modulus]])
*[[Sound Emission]]
*[[Sound Emission Analysis]]
*[[Sound Emission Experimental Conditions]]
*[[Sound Emission Testing]]
*[[Sound Power]]
*[[Sound Pressure]]
*[[Sound Test]]
*[[Sound Velocity]]
*[[Specimen]]
*[[Specimen Clamping]]
*[[Specimen Compliance]]
*[[Specimen for Fracture Mechanics Tests]]
*[[Specimen for Laser Sintering]]
*Specimen Shapes For Fatigue Tests (see [[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests]])
*Speed (see [[Velocity]])
*[[Spherulitic Structure]]
*SPLIT-HOPKINSON Pressure Bar (SHPB) Test (see [[Strain Rate Applications]])
*[[Squirter Technique]]
*Stability Time (see [[Thermostability PVC]])
*[[Standard Atmospheres]]
*[[Standard Small Bar]]
*STEFAN-BOLTZMANN Constant (see [[Thermography]])
*[[Stepped Isothermal Method, Macro Indentation Method]]
*[[Stepped Isothermal Method, Tensile Stress]]
*[[Stiffness]] (see also [[Machine Compliance]] and [[Specimen Compliance]])
*[[Strain Gauge]]
*[[Strain Hardening Test (SHT)]]
*[[Strain Rate Applications]]
*[[Strain Rate Basics]]
*[[Strength]]
*[[Stretch Zone]]
*[[Stress]]
*[[Stress Cracking Corrosion]]
*Stress Cracking Resistance (see [[Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance]])
*Stress Intensity Factor (see [[Fracture Mechanics]] and [[SENB-Specimen]])
*[[SUMPTER and TURNER – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (ST) – J-integral estimation method
*[[Support Distance]]
*Support Span (see [[Support Distance]])
*[[Surface]]
*[[Surface Energy]]
*[[Surface Resistance]]
*[[Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension]]
*[[Surface Testing Technology]]
*Swelling (see [[Water Absorption]])
}}

== T ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[TABOR Relationship]]
*Tangent Modulus (see [[Elastic Modulus]] and [[Shear Modulus]])
*[[T-Peel Test]]
*[[Tear Test]]
*Tearing Energy (see [[Trouser Specimen]])
*[[Temperature Conductivity]]
*[[Temperature-modulated Differential Scanning Calorimetry (TMDSC)]]
*[[Tensile Creep Test]]
*[[Tensile Impact Test]]
*Tensile Strain at Break (see [[Tensile Strength]])
*[[Tensile Strength]]
*[[Tensile Test]]
*[[Tensile Test and Sound Emission Analysis]]
*[[Tensile Test Compliance]]
*[[Tensile Test Control]]
*[[Tensile Test Event-related Interpretation]]
*[[Tensile Test Influences]]
*[[Tensile Test Overlapping Creep Relaxation]]
*[[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations]]
*[[Tensile Test True Stress–Strain Diagram]]
*[[Tensile Test Uniform Elongation]]
*Tensile Test Specimen (see [[Multipurpose Test Specimen]])
*[[Test Climate]]
*[[Testing]]
*Testing of Adhesive Bonds (see [[SCB-Specimen]])
*Testing of Composite Materials (see [[Composite Materials Testing]])
*[[Testing Microcomponents]]
*[[Testing Plastic Packaging]]
*[[Test Piece]]
*Test Specimen (see [[Specimen]])
*[[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests]]
*[[Test Speed]]
*[[TDCB-Specimen]] (Tapered-Double-Cantilever Beam-specimen)
*[[Thermal Conductivity]]
*Thermal Diffusivity (see [[Temperature Conductivity]])
*[[Thermal Expansion Coefficient]]
*[[Thermal Strain Analysis]]
*[[Thermal Stress Analysis]]
*[[Thermoelastic Effect]]
*[[Thermography]]
*[[Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)]]
*[[Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)]]
*[[Thermoplastic Material]]
*[[Thermosets]]
*[[Thermostability PVC]]
*[[Threads, Tips and Films]]
*Three-point Bend Test (see [[Bend Test]] and [[Bend Test – Influences]])
*Three-point Bend Specimen (see [[SENB-Specimen]])
*[[Time–Temperature Shift Law]]
*Titration Method (see [[Density]])
*TODCB-Specimen (see [[SCB-Specimen]])
*[[Toughness]]
*[[Toughness Temperature Dependence]]
*[[Tracking]]
*[[Transmission Light]]
*[[Transmission Electron Microscopy]]
*[[Transmission Sound Waves]]
*Transverse Contraction (see [[Poisson's Ratio]])
*[[Trapezoidal Specimen]]
*Triaxial Loading (see [[Multiaxial Stress State]])
*Tribological Stress (see [[Stress]])
*[[Trouser Specimen]]
}}

==U==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Birefringence]]
*[[Ultrasonic Compact Impedance (UCI) Hardness]]
*[[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Direct Coupling]]
*Ultrasonic Imaging Inspection (see [[Imaging Ultrasonic Testing]])
*[[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique]]
*[[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Laser Excitation]]
*Ultrasonic Microscopy (see [[Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)]])
*[[Ultrasonic Modulation]]
*[[Ultrasonic Phased Array Sensors]]
*Ultrasonic Pulse-echo Technique (see [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique]])
*[[Ultrasonic Runtime Measurement]]
*[[Ultrasonic Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Shock Wave Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique]]
*[[Ultrasonic Transmission Technique]]
*[[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Plate Waves Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Wall Thickness Measurement]]
*[[Ultrasonic Waves Reflection]]
*[[Ultrasonic Weld Inspection]]
*[[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters]]
*[[Ultrasound Guided Waves]]
*[[Ultrasound Testing]]
*[[Uniaxial Stress State]]
*Uniform Elongation (see [[Tensile Test Uniform Elongation]])
*[[Universal Hardness]]
*Universal Testing Machine (see [[Material Testing Machine]])
*UODCB-Specimen (see [[SCB-Specimen]])
}}

==V==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Vacuoles (see [[Shrink Voids]])
*Value (see [[Material Value]])
*[[Valve Movement Test]]
*[[Velocity]]
*[[Verification]]
*[[Vibration Fracture]]
*[[Vibration-induced Creep Fracture]]
*[[Vibration Strength]]
*Vibration Test (see [[Continuous Vibration Test]])
*[[Vicat Softening Temperature]]
*[[Vickers Hardness]]
*[[Video Extensometry]]
*Viscoelasticity (see [[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour]] and [[Viscoelastic Material Behaviour]])
*[[Viscoelastic Material Behaviour]]
*Viscous Deformation (see [[Deformation]])
*[[Viscosity]]
*[[Volume Resistance]]
*[[Volume Swelling Elastomers]]
*[[Vu-Khanh Method]]
*[[Vulcanization]]
}}

==W==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Water Absorption]]
*[[Waves and Arrest Lines]]
*Wear (see [[Abrasion Elastomers]])
*[[WinICIT-Software]]
*Wheatstone Bridge (see [[Strain Gauge]])
*[[Weld Line]]
* WU & FOWKES method (see [[Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension]])
}}

==Y==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*YOUNG-DUPRÉ Equation (see [[Surface Energy]])
*Young's Modulus (see [[IRHD Hardness]] and [[Elastic Modulus]])
*Yield Fracture Mechanics (see [[Fracture Mechanics]])
*Yield Point (see [[Yield Stress]])
*[[Yield Stress]]
}}

== Categories ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[:Category:Guest Contributions|Guest Contributions]]

*[[:Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics|Acoustic Test Methods/Ultrasonics]]
*[[:Category:Ageing|Ageing]]
*[[:Category:Bend Test|Bend Test]]
*[[:Category:Colour and Gloss|Colour and Gloss]]
*[[:Category:Compression Test|Compression Test]]
*[[:Category:Creep Behaviour Plastics|Creep Behaviour Plastics]]
*[[:Category:Damage Analysis_Component Failure|Damage Analysis/Component Failure]]
*[[:Category:Deformation|Deformation]]
*[[:Category:Elastomers|Elastomers]]
*[[:Category:Electrical and Dielectrical Testing|Electrical and Dielectrical Testing]]
*[[:Category:Fatigue|Fatigue]]
*[[:Category:Film Testing|Film Testing]]
*[[:Category:Fire Behaviour|Fire Behaviour]]
*[[:Category:Fracture Mechanics|Fracture Mechanics]]
*[[:Category:Hardness|Hardness]]
*[[:Category:Hybrid Methods|Hybrid Methods]]
*[[:Category:Impact Tests|Impact Tests]]
*[[:Category:Implant Testing|Implant Testing]]
*[[:Category:Instrumented Impact Test|Instrumented Impact Test]]
*[[:Category:Laser Extensometry|Laser Extensometry]]
*[[:Category:Light|Light]]
*[[:Category:Material Scientists Polymer Scientists|Material Scientists/Polymer Scientists]]
*[[:Category:Materials Science_Materials Engineering|Materials Science/Materials Engineering]]
*[[:Category:Measurement Testing Technology|Measurement Testing Technology]] (Measurement Data Aquisition)
*[[:Category:Morphology and Micromechanics|Morphology and Micromechanics]]
*[[:Category:Optical Field Measurement Methods|Optical Field Measurement Methods]]
*[[:Category:Peel Test|Peel Test]]
*[[:Category:Plastics|Plastics]]
*[[:Category:Process-related Properties|Process-related Properties]]
*[[:Category:Scientific Disciplines|Scientific Disciplines]]
*[[:Category:Specimen|Specimen]]
*[[:Category:Specimen Preparation|Specimen Preparation]]
*[[:Category:Stiffness Compliance|Stiffness/Compliance]]
*[[:Category:Stress Cracking Resistance|Stress Cracking Resistance]]
*[[:Category:Surface Testing Technology|Surface Testing Technology]]
*[[:Category:Tensile Test|Tensile Test]]
*[[:Category:Thermoanalytical Methods|Thermoanalytical Methods]]
*[[:Category:Velocity|Velocity]]
}}

File:Microplastics-4.jpg

2026-01-09T12:03:30Z

Oluschinski:

File:Microplastics-3.jpg

2026-01-09T12:03:22Z

Oluschinski:

File:Microplastics-2.jpg

2026-01-09T12:03:13Z

Oluschinski:

File:Microplastics-1.jpg

2026-01-09T12:03:05Z

Oluschinski:

Microplastic & Nanoplastic

2026-01-09T12:01:51Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Mikroplastik und Nanoplastik}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Microplastic & Nanoplastic (Authors: Prof. Dr. Vasiliki-Maria Archodoulaki und Dr. Lisa Schardt)
__FORCETOC__

==Microplastics==

===General remarks===

Microplastics are a technically and ecologically relevant class of [[Polymer|polymer]] particles. They have been the subject of increased research in recent years, after being first described more than 20 years ago [1, 2]. Numerous questions regarding their origin, occurrence and effects remain unanswered and are the subject of current research. The occurrence of microplastics in marine systems is comparatively well documented [3]. However, less is known about terrestrial and atmospheric environmental compartments and consumer goods such as food [4]. The potential effects on humans are also being investigated, but have not yet been adequately quantified [5]. Even less data is available on nanoplastics, a collective term for even smaller plastic particles [6].

===Definitions===

There is no uniform and universally accepted definition of microplastics or nanoplastics. Most scientific publications use an upper size limit of 5 mm for microplastics. Particles < 100 nm [7] or < 1 µm [6] are often classified as nanoplastics. However, the lower size limit is often determined by the resolution of

Regulatory definitions:

* '''ECHA (European Chemicals Agency):''' Microplastics comprise particles with a maximum size of 0.1 µm to 5 mm in any direction. An additional category includes fibrous particles with a maximum length of > 5 mm to < 15 mm and an aspect ratio > 3 [8].
* '''EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency):''' Microplastics are plastic particles with a size of 1 nm to 5 mm that have a negative impact on the environment and human health.

There are other definitions in the literature with different upper limits, e.g. 2 mm [9] or 1 mm [5, 10]. This lack of standardisation makes it difficult to compare study results.

==Classification and origin==

Microplastics are often divided into primary and secondary microplastics.

* '''Primary microplastics:''' Primary microplastics include particles that were originally manufactured on a micro scale. Examples include microbeads in cosmetic products and glitter particles. Many definitions also include particles that enter the environment directly on a micro scale through [[Abrasion Elastomers|abrasion]] or flaking, e.g. tyre abrasion or paint particles. The proportion of primary microplastics in the total marine occurrence is estimated at around 20–30 % [11]. The production of microplastic particles is increasingly restricted by legal regulations, so their proportion should decrease in the future [8, 12].

* '''Secondary microplastics:''' Secondary microplastics are created by the fragmentation of larger plastic objects as a result of physical, chemical or biological degradation processes (see: [[Ageing|ageing]]). It is estimated that they account for around 70–80 % of marine microplastics [11]. As their formation is based on uncontrolled degradation processes, regulatory restrictions are only possible indirectly [13]. The main degradation mechanisms include UV radiation, thermal stress, mechanical abrasion and microbially influenced processes, which often take place in biofilms on the particle surface [14].

This classification can also be applied to nanoplastics [6].

===Challenges===

Both particle classes have the problem that their small size makes detection, identification and quantification difficult [15]. Most analytical techniques are unable to cover the entire size range of nano- and microplastics, which further complicates comprehensive analysis [16]. Another major challenge is avoiding contamination, as microplastics and nanoplastics are ubiquitous in the environment and many laboratory items are made of [[Plastics|plastic]] [17]. In addition, sample preparation and extraction from complex matrices such as sediments, biological tissue or food require complex protocols that often still need to be developed [18]. The resulting measurements therefore show high variability. Concentration data and exposure estimates should be interpreted with caution, especially in complex systems.

===Sources and released quantities===

Reliable estimates of the sources and release quantities of microplastics are difficult to obtain, as secondary microplastics account for a large proportion of microplastics in the environment. Various studies have attempted to estimate the sources and quantities of microplastics produced ('''Fig. 1''') [19–21]. The reported values vary depending on the ecosystems and regions considered. Overall, tyre abrasion and textile fibres are considered to be the most significant sources of microplastics in the environment [22]. The global amount released is estimated at 3.0–5.3 million tonnes per year [22].

[[File:Microplastics-1.jpg|700px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |The main sources of primary and secondary microplastics in the sea
|}

==Microplastics as pollutants==

Microplastics are considered to be potentially harmful to the environment and human health. Their toxicity depends on many factors, such as particle size, shape, material, additives contained, and pollutants adsorbed on the [[Surface|surface]]. The groups of substances that are frequently adsorbed include metals, endocrine-disrupting substances and persistent organic pollutants [23, 24]. In addition, microplastics can act as carriers for pathogens and microorganisms that form biofilms on the particle surface [25].

===Occurrence in the environment===

Microplastics have been detected in all areas of our environment, including freshwater, soil, air and oceans, as well as in remote regions such as the Arctic and Alpine areas (Fig. 4) [14]. Research initially focused primarily on marine systems, particularly surface waters and coastal zones. Other environmental areas such as soil, sediments and the atmosphere have been studied much less extensively in comparison.

Microplastics enter water bodies through direct inputs such as sewage or through transport from other areas such as precipitation. In water bodies, depending on their [[Density|density]] and flow conditions, microplastics can float in the water column, accumulate on the [[Surface|surface]] or be deposited in sediments [3]. As long as no deposition occurs, microplastics are transported in the water cycle and thus enter coastal regions and oceans from rivers [22].

Microplastics enter the soil from sewage sludge, tyre abrasion, [[Hole Formation Films|mulch films]] and deposition from the atmosphere [26]. As there is only a small amount of transport of microplastics from the soil to other areas, microplastics can often accumulate here and reach higher concentrations than in the marine environment, for example. Microplastics have been detected in the atmosphere in both urban and rural regions. Atmospheric transport by wind contributes significantly to the long-range distribution of particles and also transports them to remote areas such as high mountains and polar regions [27].

Plants can absorb microplastics through their roots [28]. The consequences include altered root growth, changes in metabolism and reduced nutrient uptake. Another effect of microplastics is disruption of the soil structure, which reduces water retention capacity and leads to a decrease in crop yields [29, 30].

Animals, like humans, absorb microplastics primarily orally and through inhalation. While acute toxicity is rarely observed, chronic effects often occur, such as:

* Bioaccumulation in the digestive tract and tissue
* Inflammatory reactions and oxidative stress
* Impaired food intake or locomotion
* Changes in metabolism
* Changes in reproduction [31].

The observed consequences depend on particle properties such as size, shape and material, but also on the duration and concentration of exposure. Due to its smaller size, nanoplastics can more easily overcome biological [[Barrier Plastics|barriers]] and increasingly enter cells and tissue [7].

[[File:Microplastics-2.jpg|700px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px" | Number of microplastic particles (MP) in different areas of the environment (based on Thompson et al., Science 2024)
|}

===Influence on human health===

Humans can absorb microplastics through oral ingestion, inhalation and, to a much lesser extent, through the skin.

* '''Oral intake:'''
::::Estimates of the annual number of particles ingested orally vary widely, ranging from approximately 11,000 [32] to 113,000 [33, 34] particles per person. These values should be considered rough approximations, as standardised analytical methods are lacking for many food groups and reliable sample data is often unavailable. Microplastics have been detected in various foods, including drinking water, salt, honey and fish [35]. Food packaging can also be an additional source, for example tea bags or disposable containers [36, 37]. Regional differences in diet and hygiene standards also influence exposure [38]. Despite this uncertainty in determination, it can be assumed that relevant amounts of microplastics enter the human body via food.

* '''Inhalation:'''
::::The sources of this include textile fibres, house dust, tyre abrasion and industrial emissions [39]. One study estimates the annual inhalation intake indoors to be around 65,000–80,000 particles [40]. Particles < 10 µm can enter the lower respiratory tract, and particles < 1 µm can penetrate the alveoli and possibly enter the bloodstream [41]. Inhaled microplastics can trigger local inflammatory reactions in the lungs, which can lead to chronic diseases such as asthma, COPD and cancer [41].

* '''Dermal absorption:'''
::::plays a minor role. There is evidence that particles < 100 nm can penetrate the skin barrier under certain conditions, especially in pre-damaged skin [42]. Quantitative data on dermal exposure are currently scarce.

Microplastics have been detected in various human tissues, including the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, placenta and faecal samples (Fig. 3) [43]. This suggests that some of the particles ingested are excreted, while others remain in the body or are transported to organs [43, 44]. There is currently little knowledge about the long-term health effects of microplastics [45]. Particles < 1.5 µm can penetrate tissue and cause damage within cells [46], while particles < 10 µm can cross the placental barrier [47]. Irregularly shaped, sharp-edged or fibrous particles have an increased potential for mechanical tissue damage due to their geometry and often remain in the organism for longer before being excreted [48].

[[file:Microplastics-3.jpg|750px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px" |Schematic overview of the oral intake, distribution and excretion of microplastics in the human body
|}

In addition to mechanical effects, polymer-bound additives such as phthalates or bisphenol A, as well as substances adsorbed on the surface, including heavy metals and organic contaminants, can be released into the organism and influence biological processes [49]. If microplastic particles enter tissue, they can trigger oxidative stress and inflammatory reactions, which have been linked in the literature to various immunological and chronic diseases [31]. In cell culture studies, cytotoxic effects have been described at concentrations of around 10 µg/mL; immunological reactions occurred at concentrations of around 20 µg/mL [50].

'''Table 1:''' Summary of the properties of microplastics that are relevant to toxicity and their health consequences (modified from Koelmans et al. Nature 2022)

{| border="1px" style="border-collapse:collapse"
! style="width:200px; background:#DCDCDC" | particle type
! style="width:200px; background:#DCDCDC" | relevant properties
! colspan="3" style="background:#DCDCDC" | possible consequences
|-
|colspan="5" style="background:#BBBBBB"|'''Microparticles (1–1000 μm)'''
|-
|'''organic material'''
|chemical composition, digestibility
|style="width:100px;"|chemical toxicity
|style="width:100px;"|
|style="width:100px;"|
|-
|'''microplastic'''
|size, volume, surface area, aspect ratio, shape, adsorbed chemicals
|chemical toxicity
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|thinning of food, mechanical irritation, inflammation, oxidative stress
|
|-
|'''coal'''
|size, surface area, chemical composition
|pneumoconiosis, fibrosis, cancer
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|
|-
|colspan="5" style="background:#BBBBBB"|'''Particles that occur in micrometre and nanometre sizes'''
|-
|'''asbestos'''
|fibre length, aspect ratio, type, persistence
|asbestosis, pleural disease, lung cancer, mesothelioma
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|translocation, biodistribution, mechanical irritation, oxidative stress
|-
|'''desert dust aerosols'''
|size, surface, shape
|breathing difficulties, silicosis
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''quartz (silica)'''
|size, surface, shape
|release of silica, cancer
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|colspan="5" style="background:#BBBBBB"|'''Nanoparticle (1–1,000 nm)'''
|-
|'''carbon black'''
|size, surface, adsorb chemicals
|respiratory and cardiovascular disease, cancer
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''nanoplastic'''
|size, surface area, charge, length, size ratio, aggregation, sorbed chemicals
|unknown
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''carbon-nanotubes'''
|size, surface, length, aspect ratio, aggregation, sorbed chemicals
|fibrosis, infections, cancer
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''metal based nano materials'''
|size, surface, charge, zeta potential, solubility, aggregation
|inflammation, mitochondrial damage, DNA damage
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''colloids made from organic material'''
|digestibility, sorbed chemicals
|chemical toxicity
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|}

==Properties of microplastic particles==

===Shape===

Microplastic particles can occur in various forms, such as fragments, fibres, films, pellets and foams [51]. Primary microplastics are usually spherical, while secondary microplastics are mostly irregular in shape [52]. The shape is determined by the originally produced plastic product and the [[Ageing|ageing]] and degradation processes to which it is subjected. The shape can therefore be used to narrow down the source of microplastics found. Round particles typically originate from cosmetic products or industrial applications, while fibres are often released from textiles [53, 54].

The particle shape influences the toxicological potential. Elongated particles and sharp-edged fragments can cause more severe physical damage than round particles [50, 55, 56]. Fibres often remain in organisms for longer and therefore have an increased potential for damage [57]. It follows that secondary microplastics are generally more harmful than primary microplastics due to their typical shapes [55].

===Material===

The most commonly identified materials in microplastics are polyethylene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PE), polypropylene (abbreviation: PP), polystyrene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PS), polyvinyl chloride ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PVC), polyethylene terephthalate ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PET) and rubber from tyre [[Abrasion Elastomers|abrasion]] ('''Fig. 2'''). These are the [[Plastics|plastics]] most commonly used in the manufacture of consumer products [58]. Transport in the environment depends heavily on polymer density; polymers with a [[Density|density]] < 1 g/cm³ float on the [[Surface|surface]] and are transported over long distances in water, while particles with a higher density accumulate in the sediment [59].

Compared to size and shape, the [[Material & Werkstoff|material]] has less influence on toxicity. However, surface charge and hydrophobicity influence the adsorption behaviour towards organic and inorganic contaminants [60]. In addition, most plastics contain additives that are specific to the material and can increase toxicity through leaching [23].

Ageing and degradation processes such as photo-oxidation, hydrolysis or the formation of biofilms alter the surface chemistry and roughness of microplastic particles [14]. This results in oxidised, roughened surfaces with increased reactivity and adsorption capacity, as well as enhanced interaction with biological material.

[[File:Microplastics-4.jpg|500px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 4''':
|width="600px" |Plastic types and their presence in microplastics from the environment
|}

===Size===

The size of microplastic particles influences their mobility and bioavailability in the environment. The smaller a particle is, the easier it is for it to enter various ecosystems, become part of the food chain or penetrate biological membranes [61]. Smaller particles also remain in some organisms for longer before being excreted [48]. The specific surface area has a significant influence on the adsorption of pollutants and the release of polymer additives [62]. Smaller particles often remain in suspension for longer and can therefore be transported over greater distances [63].

Microplastics and nanoplastics occur in a wide range of sizes, the distribution of which is determined by the respective source and the degradation processes they have undergone. Primary microplastics usually have a more narrow size distribution than secondary microplastics and nanoplastics. Particle sizes of 6–100 µm have been detected in bottled drinking water, while particles up to about 1 mm have been observed in foods such as fish, salt or poultry tissue [35]. All sizes up to the limit of 5 mm occur in the environment.

'''Acknowledgement'''

The editors of the encyclopaedia would like to thank Prof. Dr. Vasiliki-Maria Archodoulaki and Dr. Lisa Schardt, [https://tiss.tuwien.ac.at/fpl/research-unit/index.xhtml?id=2206718 Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Materials Science and Technology, Structural Polymers Research Group], for this guest contribution

==See also==

* [[Plastics]]
* [[Barrier Plastics|Barrier plastics]]
* [[Smart Materials|Smart materials]]
* [[Bio-Plastics]]
* [[Layer silicate-reinforced Polymers|Layer silicate-reinforced polymers]]
* [[Particle-filled Thermoplastics|Particle-filled thermoplastics]]
* [[Short-fibre reinforced Plastics|Short-fibre reinforced plastics]]
* [[Fibre-reinforced Plastics|Fibre-reinforced plastics]]
* [[Polymer Blend|Polymer blend]]

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[[Category:Guest Contributions]]
[[Category:Plastics]]

Microplastic & Nanoplastic

2026-01-09T12:01:34Z

Oluschinski: Created page with "{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Mikroplastik und Nanoplastik}} {{PSM_Infobox}} A-Bild-Technik (Authors: Prof. Dr. Vasiliki-Maria Archodoulaki und Dr. Lisa Schardt) __FORCETOC__ ==Microplastics== ===General remarks=== Microplastics are a technically and ecologically relevant class of polymer particles. They have been the subject of increased research in recent years, after being first described more th..."

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Mikroplastik und Nanoplastik}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
A-Bild-Technik (Authors: Prof. Dr. Vasiliki-Maria Archodoulaki und Dr. Lisa Schardt)
__FORCETOC__

==Microplastics==

===General remarks===

Microplastics are a technically and ecologically relevant class of [[Polymer|polymer]] particles. They have been the subject of increased research in recent years, after being first described more than 20 years ago [1, 2]. Numerous questions regarding their origin, occurrence and effects remain unanswered and are the subject of current research. The occurrence of microplastics in marine systems is comparatively well documented [3]. However, less is known about terrestrial and atmospheric environmental compartments and consumer goods such as food [4]. The potential effects on humans are also being investigated, but have not yet been adequately quantified [5]. Even less data is available on nanoplastics, a collective term for even smaller plastic particles [6].

===Definitions===

There is no uniform and universally accepted definition of microplastics or nanoplastics. Most scientific publications use an upper size limit of 5 mm for microplastics. Particles < 100 nm [7] or < 1 µm [6] are often classified as nanoplastics. However, the lower size limit is often determined by the resolution of

Regulatory definitions:

* '''ECHA (European Chemicals Agency):''' Microplastics comprise particles with a maximum size of 0.1 µm to 5 mm in any direction. An additional category includes fibrous particles with a maximum length of > 5 mm to < 15 mm and an aspect ratio > 3 [8].
* '''EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency):''' Microplastics are plastic particles with a size of 1 nm to 5 mm that have a negative impact on the environment and human health.

There are other definitions in the literature with different upper limits, e.g. 2 mm [9] or 1 mm [5, 10]. This lack of standardisation makes it difficult to compare study results.

==Classification and origin==

Microplastics are often divided into primary and secondary microplastics.

* '''Primary microplastics:''' Primary microplastics include particles that were originally manufactured on a micro scale. Examples include microbeads in cosmetic products and glitter particles. Many definitions also include particles that enter the environment directly on a micro scale through [[Abrasion Elastomers|abrasion]] or flaking, e.g. tyre abrasion or paint particles. The proportion of primary microplastics in the total marine occurrence is estimated at around 20–30 % [11]. The production of microplastic particles is increasingly restricted by legal regulations, so their proportion should decrease in the future [8, 12].

* '''Secondary microplastics:''' Secondary microplastics are created by the fragmentation of larger plastic objects as a result of physical, chemical or biological degradation processes (see: [[Ageing|ageing]]). It is estimated that they account for around 70–80 % of marine microplastics [11]. As their formation is based on uncontrolled degradation processes, regulatory restrictions are only possible indirectly [13]. The main degradation mechanisms include UV radiation, thermal stress, mechanical abrasion and microbially influenced processes, which often take place in biofilms on the particle surface [14].

This classification can also be applied to nanoplastics [6].

===Challenges===

Both particle classes have the problem that their small size makes detection, identification and quantification difficult [15]. Most analytical techniques are unable to cover the entire size range of nano- and microplastics, which further complicates comprehensive analysis [16]. Another major challenge is avoiding contamination, as microplastics and nanoplastics are ubiquitous in the environment and many laboratory items are made of [[Plastics|plastic]] [17]. In addition, sample preparation and extraction from complex matrices such as sediments, biological tissue or food require complex protocols that often still need to be developed [18]. The resulting measurements therefore show high variability. Concentration data and exposure estimates should be interpreted with caution, especially in complex systems.

===Sources and released quantities===

Reliable estimates of the sources and release quantities of microplastics are difficult to obtain, as secondary microplastics account for a large proportion of microplastics in the environment. Various studies have attempted to estimate the sources and quantities of microplastics produced ('''Fig. 1''') [19–21]. The reported values vary depending on the ecosystems and regions considered. Overall, tyre abrasion and textile fibres are considered to be the most significant sources of microplastics in the environment [22]. The global amount released is estimated at 3.0–5.3 million tonnes per year [22].

[[File:Microplastics-1.jpg|700px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |The main sources of primary and secondary microplastics in the sea
|}

==Microplastics as pollutants==

Microplastics are considered to be potentially harmful to the environment and human health. Their toxicity depends on many factors, such as particle size, shape, material, additives contained, and pollutants adsorbed on the [[Surface|surface]]. The groups of substances that are frequently adsorbed include metals, endocrine-disrupting substances and persistent organic pollutants [23, 24]. In addition, microplastics can act as carriers for pathogens and microorganisms that form biofilms on the particle surface [25].

===Occurrence in the environment===

Microplastics have been detected in all areas of our environment, including freshwater, soil, air and oceans, as well as in remote regions such as the Arctic and Alpine areas (Fig. 4) [14]. Research initially focused primarily on marine systems, particularly surface waters and coastal zones. Other environmental areas such as soil, sediments and the atmosphere have been studied much less extensively in comparison.

Microplastics enter water bodies through direct inputs such as sewage or through transport from other areas such as precipitation. In water bodies, depending on their [[Density|density]] and flow conditions, microplastics can float in the water column, accumulate on the [[Surface|surface]] or be deposited in sediments [3]. As long as no deposition occurs, microplastics are transported in the water cycle and thus enter coastal regions and oceans from rivers [22].

Microplastics enter the soil from sewage sludge, tyre abrasion, [[Hole Formation Films|mulch films]] and deposition from the atmosphere [26]. As there is only a small amount of transport of microplastics from the soil to other areas, microplastics can often accumulate here and reach higher concentrations than in the marine environment, for example. Microplastics have been detected in the atmosphere in both urban and rural regions. Atmospheric transport by wind contributes significantly to the long-range distribution of particles and also transports them to remote areas such as high mountains and polar regions [27].

Plants can absorb microplastics through their roots [28]. The consequences include altered root growth, changes in metabolism and reduced nutrient uptake. Another effect of microplastics is disruption of the soil structure, which reduces water retention capacity and leads to a decrease in crop yields [29, 30].

Animals, like humans, absorb microplastics primarily orally and through inhalation. While acute toxicity is rarely observed, chronic effects often occur, such as:

* Bioaccumulation in the digestive tract and tissue
* Inflammatory reactions and oxidative stress
* Impaired food intake or locomotion
* Changes in metabolism
* Changes in reproduction [31].

The observed consequences depend on particle properties such as size, shape and material, but also on the duration and concentration of exposure. Due to its smaller size, nanoplastics can more easily overcome biological [[Barrier Plastics|barriers]] and increasingly enter cells and tissue [7].

[[File:Microplastics-2.jpg|700px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px" | Number of microplastic particles (MP) in different areas of the environment (based on Thompson et al., Science 2024)
|}

===Influence on human health===

Humans can absorb microplastics through oral ingestion, inhalation and, to a much lesser extent, through the skin.

* '''Oral intake:'''
::::Estimates of the annual number of particles ingested orally vary widely, ranging from approximately 11,000 [32] to 113,000 [33, 34] particles per person. These values should be considered rough approximations, as standardised analytical methods are lacking for many food groups and reliable sample data is often unavailable. Microplastics have been detected in various foods, including drinking water, salt, honey and fish [35]. Food packaging can also be an additional source, for example tea bags or disposable containers [36, 37]. Regional differences in diet and hygiene standards also influence exposure [38]. Despite this uncertainty in determination, it can be assumed that relevant amounts of microplastics enter the human body via food.

* '''Inhalation:'''
::::The sources of this include textile fibres, house dust, tyre abrasion and industrial emissions [39]. One study estimates the annual inhalation intake indoors to be around 65,000–80,000 particles [40]. Particles < 10 µm can enter the lower respiratory tract, and particles < 1 µm can penetrate the alveoli and possibly enter the bloodstream [41]. Inhaled microplastics can trigger local inflammatory reactions in the lungs, which can lead to chronic diseases such as asthma, COPD and cancer [41].

* '''Dermal absorption:'''
::::plays a minor role. There is evidence that particles < 100 nm can penetrate the skin barrier under certain conditions, especially in pre-damaged skin [42]. Quantitative data on dermal exposure are currently scarce.

Microplastics have been detected in various human tissues, including the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, placenta and faecal samples (Fig. 3) [43]. This suggests that some of the particles ingested are excreted, while others remain in the body or are transported to organs [43, 44]. There is currently little knowledge about the long-term health effects of microplastics [45]. Particles < 1.5 µm can penetrate tissue and cause damage within cells [46], while particles < 10 µm can cross the placental barrier [47]. Irregularly shaped, sharp-edged or fibrous particles have an increased potential for mechanical tissue damage due to their geometry and often remain in the organism for longer before being excreted [48].

[[file:Microplastics-3.jpg|750px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px" |Schematic overview of the oral intake, distribution and excretion of microplastics in the human body
|}

In addition to mechanical effects, polymer-bound additives such as phthalates or bisphenol A, as well as substances adsorbed on the surface, including heavy metals and organic contaminants, can be released into the organism and influence biological processes [49]. If microplastic particles enter tissue, they can trigger oxidative stress and inflammatory reactions, which have been linked in the literature to various immunological and chronic diseases [31]. In cell culture studies, cytotoxic effects have been described at concentrations of around 10 µg/mL; immunological reactions occurred at concentrations of around 20 µg/mL [50].

'''Table 1:''' Summary of the properties of microplastics that are relevant to toxicity and their health consequences (modified from Koelmans et al. Nature 2022)

{| border="1px" style="border-collapse:collapse"
! style="width:200px; background:#DCDCDC" | particle type
! style="width:200px; background:#DCDCDC" | relevant properties
! colspan="3" style="background:#DCDCDC" | possible consequences
|-
|colspan="5" style="background:#BBBBBB"|'''Microparticles (1–1000 μm)'''
|-
|'''organic material'''
|chemical composition, digestibility
|style="width:100px;"|chemical toxicity
|style="width:100px;"|
|style="width:100px;"|
|-
|'''microplastic'''
|size, volume, surface area, aspect ratio, shape, adsorbed chemicals
|chemical toxicity
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|thinning of food, mechanical irritation, inflammation, oxidative stress
|
|-
|'''coal'''
|size, surface area, chemical composition
|pneumoconiosis, fibrosis, cancer
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|
|-
|colspan="5" style="background:#BBBBBB"|'''Particles that occur in micrometre and nanometre sizes'''
|-
|'''asbestos'''
|fibre length, aspect ratio, type, persistence
|asbestosis, pleural disease, lung cancer, mesothelioma
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|translocation, biodistribution, mechanical irritation, oxidative stress
|-
|'''desert dust aerosols'''
|size, surface, shape
|breathing difficulties, silicosis
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''quartz (silica)'''
|size, surface, shape
|release of silica, cancer
|style="background:#FAE2D5"|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|colspan="5" style="background:#BBBBBB"|'''Nanoparticle (1–1,000 nm)'''
|-
|'''carbon black'''
|size, surface, adsorb chemicals
|respiratory and cardiovascular disease, cancer
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''nanoplastic'''
|size, surface area, charge, length, size ratio, aggregation, sorbed chemicals
|unknown
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''carbon-nanotubes'''
|size, surface, length, aspect ratio, aggregation, sorbed chemicals
|fibrosis, infections, cancer
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''metal based nano materials'''
|size, surface, charge, zeta potential, solubility, aggregation
|inflammation, mitochondrial damage, DNA damage
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|-
|'''colloids made from organic material'''
|digestibility, sorbed chemicals
|chemical toxicity
|
|style="background:#DAE9F7"|
|}

==Properties of microplastic particles==

===Shape===

Microplastic particles can occur in various forms, such as fragments, fibres, films, pellets and foams [51]. Primary microplastics are usually spherical, while secondary microplastics are mostly irregular in shape [52]. The shape is determined by the originally produced plastic product and the [[Ageing|ageing]] and degradation processes to which it is subjected. The shape can therefore be used to narrow down the source of microplastics found. Round particles typically originate from cosmetic products or industrial applications, while fibres are often released from textiles [53, 54].

The particle shape influences the toxicological potential. Elongated particles and sharp-edged fragments can cause more severe physical damage than round particles [50, 55, 56]. Fibres often remain in organisms for longer and therefore have an increased potential for damage [57]. It follows that secondary microplastics are generally more harmful than primary microplastics due to their typical shapes [55].

===Material===

The most commonly identified materials in microplastics are polyethylene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PE), polypropylene (abbreviation: PP), polystyrene ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PS), polyvinyl chloride ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PVC), polyethylene terephthalate ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PET) and rubber from tyre [[Abrasion Elastomers|abrasion]] ('''Fig. 2'''). These are the [[Plastics|plastics]] most commonly used in the manufacture of consumer products [58]. Transport in the environment depends heavily on polymer density; polymers with a [[Density|density]] < 1 g/cm³ float on the [[Surface|surface]] and are transported over long distances in water, while particles with a higher density accumulate in the sediment [59].

Compared to size and shape, the [[Material & Werkstoff|material]] has less influence on toxicity. However, surface charge and hydrophobicity influence the adsorption behaviour towards organic and inorganic contaminants [60]. In addition, most plastics contain additives that are specific to the material and can increase toxicity through leaching [23].

Ageing and degradation processes such as photo-oxidation, hydrolysis or the formation of biofilms alter the surface chemistry and roughness of microplastic particles [14]. This results in oxidised, roughened surfaces with increased reactivity and adsorption capacity, as well as enhanced interaction with biological material.

[[File:Microplastics-4.jpg|500px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 4''':
|width="600px" |Plastic types and their presence in microplastics from the environment
|}

===Size===

The size of microplastic particles influences their mobility and bioavailability in the environment. The smaller a particle is, the easier it is for it to enter various ecosystems, become part of the food chain or penetrate biological membranes [61]. Smaller particles also remain in some organisms for longer before being excreted [48]. The specific surface area has a significant influence on the adsorption of pollutants and the release of polymer additives [62]. Smaller particles often remain in suspension for longer and can therefore be transported over greater distances [63].

Microplastics and nanoplastics occur in a wide range of sizes, the distribution of which is determined by the respective source and the degradation processes they have undergone. Primary microplastics usually have a more narrow size distribution than secondary microplastics and nanoplastics. Particle sizes of 6–100 µm have been detected in bottled drinking water, while particles up to about 1 mm have been observed in foods such as fish, salt or poultry tissue [35]. All sizes up to the limit of 5 mm occur in the environment.

'''Acknowledgement'''

The editors of the encyclopaedia would like to thank Prof. Dr. Vasiliki-Maria Archodoulaki and Dr. Lisa Schardt, [https://tiss.tuwien.ac.at/fpl/research-unit/index.xhtml?id=2206718 Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Materials Science and Technology, Structural Polymers Research Group], for this guest contribution

==See also==

* [[Plastics]]
* [[Barrier Plastics|Barrier plastics]]
* [[Smart Materials|Smart materials]]
* [[Bio-Plastics]]
* [[Layer silicate-reinforced Polymers|Layer silicate-reinforced polymers]]
* [[Particle-filled Thermoplastics|Particle-filled thermoplastics]]
* [[Short-fibre reinforced Plastics|Short-fibre reinforced plastics]]
* [[Fibre-reinforced Plastics|Fibre-reinforced plastics]]
* [[Polymer Blend|Polymer blend]]

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|Xia, B., Sui, Q., Du, Y., Wang, L., Jing, J., Zhu, L., Zhao, X., Sun, X. Booth, A. M., Chen, B., et al.: Secondary PVC microplastics are more toxic than primary PVC microplastics to Oryzias melastigma embryos. J. Hazard. Mater. '''2022''', 424, 127421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127421
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|}

[[Category:Guest Contributions]]
[[Category:Plastics]]

Content

2026-01-09T12:01:11Z

Oluschinski: /* M */

Welcome to the PSM Wiki-lexicon "Polymer Testing & Diagnostics" from [http://www.psm-merseburg.de Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg] ([[Polymer_Service_GmbH_Merseburg|PSM]])!

{{PSM_Infobox}}

{{TOC_eng}}

== A ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[ABBE Refractometer]]
*Abbreviated Terms – Plastics (see [[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms]])
*[[Abrasion Elastomers]]
*Absorption Light (see [[Light Absorption]])
*[[Absorption Sound Waves]]
*[[Acoustic Emission]]
*Acoustic Microscopy (see [[Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)]])
*[[Acoustic Properties]]
*Acoustic Resonance Analysis (see [[Resonance Analysis]] (Acoustic)
*[[Accreditation and Certification]]
*ADAM-GIBBS-realition (see [[Crystallinity]])
*[[Adhesive Energy Release Rate]]
*[[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]]
*Adhesion Glass Fibre (see [[Fibre–Matrix Adhesion]])
*[[Adjustment]]
*[[Ageing]]
*[[Ageing Elastomers]]
*[[Air-Ultrasound]]
*[[Air-Ultrasound – Device Technology]]
*[[Alpha ROCKWELL Hardness]]
*[[Altstädt, Volker]]
*Anisotropic Deformation (see [[Deformation]])
*[[Anisotropy]]
*[[A-Scan Technique]]
*[[Arcan-Specimen]]
*Arc-shaped Specimen (see [[C-shaped Test Specimen]])
*Arrest Lines (see [[Fracture Types]], [[Fractography]] and [[Waves and Arrest Lines]])
*[[Ashing Method]]
*[[Atomic Force Microscopy]] (AFM)
}}

== B ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Bakelite]]
*[[Ball Indentation Hardness]]
*Ball Indentation Hardness IRHD (see [[IRHD Hardness]])
*[[Ball or Pin Impression Method]]
*BARENBLATT Crack Model (see [[Crack Model according to BARENBLATT]])
*[[Barrier Plastics]]
*[[Barcol Hardness]]
*BCS Crack Model (see [[Crack Models]])
*[[BEGLEY and LANDES – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
* Bending Stiffness (see [[Stiffness]] and [[Bend Test Compliance]])
*[[Bend Loading]]
*[[Bend Strip Method]]
*[[Bend Test]]
*[[Bend Test and Light Microscopy]]
*[[Bend Test and Sound Emission Analysis]]
*[[Bend Test Compliance]]
*[[Bend Test – Influences]]
*[[Bend Test – Shear Stress]]
*[[Bend Test – Specimen Preparation]]
*[[Bend Test – Specimen Shapes]]
*[[Bend Test – Test Influences]]
*[[Bend Test – Yield Stress]]
*[[Bierögel, Christian]]
*[[Bio-Plastics]]
*[[Bio-Plastics – Impact-Modified]]
*Blowholes (see [[Shrink Voids]])
*[[Blumenauer, Horst]]
*Blunting Crack Tip (see [[Stretch Zone]], [[in-situ Tensile Test in ESEM with AE]] and [[Crack Opening]])
*[[BOLTZMANN's Superposition Principle]]
*Boundary Surface (see [[Phase Boundary Surface]])
*[[Brittle Fracture Promoting Factors]]
*[[Brittle-Tough Transition]]
*Brittle Fracture (see [[Fracture Types]], [[Component Failure]] and [[Fractography]])
*[[Brittle-Tough Transition Temperature]]
*[[B-Scan Technique]]
*[[BUCHHOLZ Hardness]]
*[[Bulk Density]]
}}

== C ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Calibration]]
*[[Campus®]]
*[[Capillary Rheometer]]
*Characteristic Values (see [[Material Value]])
*Charpy Impact Test (see [[Impact Test]])
*[[Charpy Testing]]
*Clamping Jaws (see [[Specimen Clamping]])
*Clip-on Strain Gauge (see [[Tensile Test#Tensile test, path measurement technique|Tensile Test, Path Measurement Technique]])
*Cohesive Strength (see [[Fracture]])
*Cold Stretching (see [[Tensile Test]])
*[[Colour]]
*[[Colour Penetration Test]]
*[[Compact Tension Specimen]]
*[[Compact Tension Shear (CTS) Specimen]]
*Comparative Tracking Index (CTI) (see [[Creep Current Resistance]])
*Compliance (see [[Tensile Test Compliance]] and [[Specimen Compliance]])
*Compliance Method (see [[J-Compliance Method]])
*[[Component Failure]]
*[[Component Testing]]
*[[Composite Materials Testing]]
*[[Composite Materials Testing – Requirements for Materials Testing Machines]]
*Composite Probes (see [[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors]])
*[[Compression After Impact Test]]
*[[Compression Hardness]]
*[[Compression Strength]]
*[[Compression Test]]
*[[Compression Test Arrangement]]
*[[Compression Test Compliance]]
*Compressive and Buckling Stiffness (see [[Stiffness]])
*Constraint Factor (see [[J-Integral Concept]] and [[Toughness Temperature Dependence]])
*Constant Tensile Load Method (see [[Tensile Creep Test]])
*[[Continuous Vibration Test]]
*[[Continuum Mechanics]]
*[[Conventional Hardness Testing]]
*Corrected Beam Theory (CBT) (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*[[Correspondence Principle]]
*[[Crack]]
*[[Crack Formation]]
*Crack Growth (see [[Crack Propagation]])
*[[Crack Initiation]]
*[[Crack Models]]
*[[Crack Model according to BARENBLATT]]
*[[Crack Model according to DUGDALE]]
*[[Crack Model according to GRIFFITH]]
*[[Crack Model according to IRWIN and Mc CLINTOCK]]
*[[Crack Opening]]
*[[Crack Opening Modes]]
*[[Crack Propagation]]
*[[Crack Propagation Energy]]
*[[Crack Resistance (R) Curve]]
*[[Crack Resistance Curve – Examples]]
*[[Crack Resistance Curve – Experimental Methods]]
*[[Crack Resistance Curve – Elastomers Quasistatic]]
*[[Crack Tip Opening Displacement Concept (CTOD)]]
*[[Crack Toughness]]
*[[Craze-Types]]
*Craze (see [[Micromechanics & Nanomechanics]])
*[[Crazing]]
*CRB-Test (Crack Round Bar Test) (see [[Full Notch Creep Test (FNCT)]] and [[Pennsylvania Edge Notch Tensile (PENT) Test]])
*[[Creep Behaviour – Creep Compression Test]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Determination]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Flexural Creep Test]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Recovery Test]]
*[[Creep Behaviour – Tensile Creep Test]]
*[[Creep Compression Test]]
*[[Creep Current Resistance]]
*Creep Modul (see [[Creep Behaviour – Determination]])
*Creep Path Formation (see [[Tracking]])
*[[Creep Plastics]]
*[[Crescent Specimen]]
*[[Crosshead Speed]]
*[[Crystallinity]]
*[[Cross-linking Elastomers]]
*[[C-shaped Test Specimen]]
*[[C-Scan Technique]]
*[[CT-Specimen]]
*[[Curing]]
}}

== D ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Damage Analysis (see [[Failure Analysis – Basics]])
*Damage Analysis of Plastic Products (see [[Failure Analysis Plastics Products, VDI Guideline 3822]])
*[[DCB-Specimen]] (Double-Cantilever Beam)
*Defect Density (see [[Tensile Test Event-related Interpretation]])
*[[Deformation]]
*[[Deformation Mechanisms]]
*[[Deformation Rate]]
*[[Deformation Velocity]]
*[[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]]
*[[Density]]
*[[Depth of Field Microscope]]
*[[Dielectric Loss Factor]]
*[[Dielectric Properties]]
*[[Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)]]
*[[Dispersion]]
*[[Drives Materials Testing Machines]]
*[[D-Scan Technique]]
*[[Ductility Plastics]]
*DUGDALE Crack Model (see [[Crack Model according to DUGDALE]])
*[[Durability Elastomers]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – General Principles]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Bend Loading]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Tensile Stress]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Tensile Test]]
*[[Dynamic-mechanical Analysis (DMA) – Torsional Stress]]
*Dynstat Impact Test (see [[Impact Test]])
}}

==E==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Effective Crack Length]]
*[[Ehrenstein, Gottfried W.]]
*[[Elasticity]]
*[[Elastic Modulus]]
*[[Elastic Modulus – Examples and Material Values]]
*[[Elastic Modulus – Ultrasonic Measurement]]
*[[Elastomers]]
*[[Elastomer Dispersion Filler]]
*[[Electrical Conductivity]]
*[[Electrical Strength]]
*[[Electro-mechanical Force Transducer]]
*[[Electron Microscopy]]
*[[Electronic Instrumentation]]
*[[Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI)]]
*Elongation at Break (see [[Tensile Strength]])
*Emission (see [[Acoustic Emission]])
*[[ENF-Specimen]] (End-Notched Flexure)
*[[Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX)]]
*[[Energy Elasticity]]
*[[Energy Release Rate]]
*Entanglements (see [[Polymers & Structure]], [[Entropy Elasticity]] and [[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]])
*[[Entropy Elasticity]]
*Entry Point (see [[Sink Mark]])
*[[Environmental-SEM (ESEM)]]
*[[Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance]]
*[[Equivalent Energy Concept – Application Limits]]
*[[Equivalent Energy Concept – Basics]]
*[[Errors]]
*[[Error Limit]]
*EULER's Buckling (see [[Stiffness]])
*Exfoliation (see [[Laser Silicate-reinforced Polymers]])
*Experimental Compliance Method (ECM) (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*[[Extended CTOD Concept]]
}}

==F==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Failure Analysis – Basics]]
*[[Failure Analysis Plastics Products, VDI Guideline 3822]]
*[[Fatigue]]
*[[Fatigue Strength]]
*[[Fatigue Crack Propagation Elastomers]]
*[[Fibre–Matrix Adhesion]]
*[[Fibre-reinforced Plastics]]
*[[Fibre-reinforced Plastics Fracture Model]]
*[[Fibre Orientation]]
*Fibre Content (see [[Ashing Method]])
*Fibrillation (see [[Crazing]], [[Craze-Types]] and [[Multiple Crazing]])
*[[Fixed-arm Peel Test]]
*Filler (see [[Particle-filled Thermoplastics]])
*[[Film Testing]]
*[[Flexural Creep Test]]
*[[Flexural Modulus]]
*[[Flexural Strength]]
*Flexural Test (see [[Bend Test]])
*FLORY-HUGGINS Interaction Parameter (see [[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]])
*FLORY-REHNER Theory (see [[Degree of Cross-Linking Elastomers]])
*Four Point Bend Test (see [[Bend Test]] and [[Bend Test – Influences]])
*[[Fracture]]
*[[Fractography]]
*[[Fracture Behaviour]]
*[[Fracture Behaviour of Plastics Components]]
*Fracture Energy (see [[Fracture Formation]] and [[Fracture]])
*[[Fracture Formation]]
*[[Fracture Mechanical Testing]]
*[[Fracture Mechanics]]
*Fracture Mechanics Test Specimens (see [[Specimen for Fracture Mechanics Tests]])
*[[Fracture Modes]]
*[[Fracture Mirror]]
*[[Fracture Parables]]
*[[Fracture Process Zone]]
*[[Fracture Safety Criterion]]
*[[Fracture Surface]]
*Fracture Toughness (see [[Fracture Mechanics]])
*[[Fracture Types]]
*[[Free Falling Dart Method]]
*[[Freeze-Time]]
*[[Frequency Analysis]]
*[[Frequency Response Control]]
*Friction (see [[Bend Test – Influences]])
*[[Friction Force]]
*[[F-Scan Technique]]
*[[FTIR Spectroscopy]]
*[[Full Notch Creep Test (FNCT)]]
}}

==G==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Gas Bubbles]]
*[[Geometry Criterion]]
*[[Geometry Function]]
*Glass Fibre Content (see [[Ashing Method]])
*[[Glass Fibre Orientation]]
*[[Glass Transition Temperature]]
*[[Gloss]]
*[[Gloss Measurement]]
*[[Glowing Hot-Wire Test]]
*[[Goodyear, Charles Nelson]]
*[[Grellmann, Wolfgang]]
*[[Griffith, Alan Arnold]]
*GRIFFITH's crack model (see [[Crack Model according to GRIFFITH]])
*[[GRIFFITH's Criteria]]
*[[GRIFFITH's Theory]]

}}

==H==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Hardness]]
*Hardness Revaluation (see [[Hardness#Hardness revaluation|Hardness]])
*HAGEN-POISSEUILLE-Equation (see [[Capillary Rheometer]])
*Heat Conductivity (see [[Thermal Conductivity]])
*[[Heat Distortion Temperature HDT]]
*[[Heat Resistance]]
*[[HERTZIAN Pressure]]
*[[Heterogeneity]]
*[[HF-Scan]]
*High-pressure Capillary Rheometer (see [[Capillary Rheometer]])
*[[High-speed Tensile Test]]
*[[HOOKE's Law]]
*[[Hole Formation Films]]
*[[Hole Formation Plastics]]
*HRR Crack Model (see [[Crack Models]])
*HUYGENS' Principle (see [[Sound Pressure]])
*[[Hybrid Methods]] of Plastic Diagnostics
*[[Hybrid Methods, Examples]]
}}

== I ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*ICIT (see [[Instrumented Charpy Impact Test]])
*[[ICIT – Energy Method]]
*[[ICIT – Experimental Conditions]]
*[[ICIT – Extended Stop-Block Method]]
*[[ICIT – Influence of Pendulum Hammer Velocity]]
*[[ICIT – Limits of Fracture Mechanics Evaluation]]
*[[ICIT – Nonlinear Material Behaviour]]
*[[ICIT – Specimen Length Method]]
*[[ICIT – Stop Block Method]]
*[[ICIT – Support Span Method]]
*[[ICIT – Types of Impact Load–Deflection Diagrams]]
*[[ICIT with AE]]
*Immersion Method (see [[Density]])
*[[Imaging Ultrasonic Testing]]
*[[Impact Loading Free-falling Dart Test]]
*[[Impact Loading High-Speed Testing]]
*[[Impact Loading Pendulum Impact Tester]]
*[[Impact Loading Plastics]]
*[[Impact Test]]
*In-situ Peel Test (see [[Peeling Process]])
*[[In-situ Tensile Test in ESEM with AE]]
*[[In-situ Tensile Test in NMR]]
*[[In-situ Ultramicrotomy]]
*[[Indentation Fracture Mechanics]]
*[[Indentation Modulus]]
*[[Indenter]]
*Index of Refraction (see [[Refraction Index]])
*Induction Time (see [[Thermostability PVC]])
*[[Inertial Load]]
*[[Initial Crack Length]]
*Instrumentation (see [[Electronic Instrumentation]])
*[[Instrumented Adhesion Test]]
*[[Instrumented Charpy Impact Test]] (ICIT)
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement – Creep]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement – Indentation Depth Measurement with Modified Contact Foot]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement – Relaxation]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Measurement with Tempering]]
*[[Instrumented Hardness Testing – Method & Material Parameters]]
*[[Instrumented Puncture Impact Test]]
*[[Instrumented Scratch Testing]]
*[[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test (ITIT)]]
*[[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test (ITIT), Examples]]
*[[Insulation Resistance]]
*Intercalated Structure (see [[Layer Silicate-reinforced Polymers]])
*Interface (see [[Phase Boundary Surface]])
*[[Interlaminar Shear Strength]]
*[[IRHD Hardness]]
*IRWIN and Mc CLINTOCK crack model (see [[Crack Model according to IRWIN and Mc CLINTOCK]])
*IRWIN-KIES Equation (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*ITIT (see [[Instrumented Tensile Impact Test]])
*IZOD Impact Test (see [[Impact Test]])
}}

==J==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[J-Compliance Method]]
*[[J-Integral Concept]]
*[[J-Integral Evaluation Methods (Overview)]]
*J-integral Estimation Methods of
::- BEGLEY and LANDES (see [[BEGLEY and LANDES – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (BL))
::- RICE, PARIS and MERKLE (see [[RICE, PARIS and MERKLE – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (RPM))
::- SUMPTER and TURNER (see [[SUMPTER and TURNER – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (ST))
::- MERKLE and CORTEN (see [[MERKLE and CORTEN – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (MC))
::- KANAZAWA (see [[KANAZAWA – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (K))
*[[JTJ-Concept]]
}}

== K ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Kausch, Hans-Henning]]
*KIRCHHOFF's Law of Radiation (see [[Thermography]])
*[[KNOOP Hardness]]
*[[KANAZAWA – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
}}

== L ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Lamb Waves (see [[Ultrasonic Plate Waves Sensors]])
*LAMBERT-BEER's Law (see [[Light Absorption]])
*[[Laser Angle-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Cross-Unit]]
*[[Laser Doppler-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Double-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Extensometry]]
*[[Laser Extensometry – Local Strain Control]]
*[[Laser Heterogeneity of Strain Distribution]]
*[[Laser Longitudinal–Transverse Scanner]]
*[[Laser Multi-Scanner]]
*[[Laser Parallel-Scanner]]
*[[Layer Silicate-reinforced Polymers]]
*[[Laser TMA-Scanner]]
*[[Levels of Knowledge in Fracture Mechanics]]
*[[Light Absorption]]
*Linear-elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) (see [[Fracture Mechanics]])
*[[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour]]
*Liquid Pycnometer Method (see [[Density]])
*Load Cell (see [[Elektro-Mechanical Force Transducer and Piezoelectric Force Transducer]])
*[[Load Framework]]
*Low-pressure Capillary Rheometer (see [[Capillary Rheometer]])
}}

== M ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Machine Compliance]]
*[[Macrodispersion Degree Elastomers]]
*[[Manufacturer of Material Testing Machines]]
*[[Martens, Adolf]]
*[[Material Science & Plastics]]
*[[Materials Science]]
*[[Material Parameter]]
*[[Materials Technology & Materials Science]]
*[[Material Testing Machine]]
*[[Material & Werkstoff]]
*[[Material Value]]
*[[Materials Testing]]
*[[MAXWELL Model]]
*[[Measure]]
*[[Measured Value]]
*[[Measured Value Accuracy]]
*[[Measured Variable]]
*[[Measurement Deviation]]
*[[Measuring Accuracy]]
*[[Measuring Device Monitoring]]
*[[Measuring Uncertainty]]
*Melt Flow Index (see [[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]] and [[Melt Volume-Flow Rate]])
*[[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]]
*Melt Temperatur (see [[Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)]] and [[Crystallinity]])
*[[Melt Volume-Flow Rate]]
*[[Menges, Georg]]
*[[MERKLE and CORTEN – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
*MFR (see [[Melt Mass-Flow Rate]])
*[[Michler, Goerg Hannes]]
*Microcrack (see [[Crack]])
*[[Micro-Damage Limit]]
*Mcrohardness (see [[Hardness]])
*Micro-IRHD (see [[IRHD Hardness]])
*[[Micromechanics & Nanomechanics]]
*[[Microplastic & Nanoplastic]]
*[[Micropores]]
*[[Microscopic Structure]]
*[[Microtomy]]
*[[Mixed-Mode Crack Propagation]]
*[[MMB-Specimen]]
*[[Mobile Hardness Measurement]]
*Morphology (see [[Microscopic Structure]])
*Moulded Part (see [[Moulding Compound]])
*[[Moulding Compound]]
*Modulus of Compressibility (see [[Energy Elasticity]])
* Modulus of Elasticity (see [[Elastic Modulus]])
*[[Mohs, Carl Friedrich Christian]]
*[[Moulding Compound Test]]
*[[MPK-Procedure MPK-ICIT]]
*[[MPK-Procedure MPK-ITIT]]
* MTS (Maximum Tensile Stress) Criterion (see [[Mixed-Mode Crack Propagation]]
*[[Multiaxial Stress State]]
*[[Multiple Crazing]]
*[[Multiple Fracture UD Tapes]]
*[[Multipurpose Test Specimen]]
}}

== N ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Nanocomposite (see [[Layer Silicate-reinforced Thermoplastics]])
*Necking Elongation (see [[Tensile Test Uniform Elongation]])
*[[Non-destructive Polymer Testing]]
*[[Non-destructive Testing (NDT)]]
*Normative Strain (see [[Tensile Strength]])
*[[Notch]]
*[[Notch Geometry]]
*Notch Impact Strength (see [[Notched Impact Test]])
*Notch Insertion (see [[Notching]])
*[[Notch Sensitivity]]
*[[Notched Impact Test]]
*[[Notched Tensile Impact Test]]
*[[Notching]]
*[[Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy]] (NMR Spectroscopy)
}}

== O ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Orientation (see [[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations]])
*Overview about J-Integral Evaluation Methods (see [[J-Integral Evaluation Methods (Overview)]])
}}

==P==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*PARIS–ERDOGAN Equation (see [[Fatigue Crack Propagation Elastomers]])
*Parameter (see [[Material Parameter]])
*[[Particle-filled Thermoplastics]]
*[[Peel Angle]]
*[[Peel Behaviour – Modelling]]
*[[Peel-Cling Test]]
*[[Peel-Cling Test Cyclic]]
*[[Peel-Cling Test Extented]]
*[[Peel Force]]
*[[Peel Force – Fracture Path Diagram]]
*[[Peeling Process]]
*[[Peel Properties of Peel Systems]]
*[[Peel Test]]
*Pendulum Hammer Velocity (see [[ICIT – Influence of Pendulum Hammer Velocity]])
*[[Pennsylvania Edge Notch Tensile (PENT) Test]]
*[[Peripheral Fibre Strain]]
*[[Phase Boundary Surface]]
*[[Piezoelectric Ceramic]]
*[[Piezoelectric Ceramic Transducer]]
*Piezoelectric Effect (see [[Piezoelectric Force Transducer]] and [[Piezo Ceramics]])
*[[Piezoelectric Force Transducer]]
*[[Plane Stress and Strain State]]
*[[Plastic Component]]
*Plastic Deformation (see [[Deformation]])
*[[Plastic Films & Varnishes – Surface Technology]]
*[[Plastics]]
*[[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms]]
*[[Plastic Zone]]
*[[Plastography]]
*[[Poisson's Ratio]]
*[[Polarisation Optical Examination]]
*[[Polymer]]
*[[Polymer Blend]]
*[[Polymer Diagnostic]]
*[[Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg]]
*[[Polymers & Structure]]
*[[Polymer Testing]]
*[[Processing Shrinkage]]
*[[Producer Material Testing Machines]] (see: [[Manufacturer Material Testing Machines]])
*Proof Tracking Index (CTI) (see [[Creep Current Resistance]])
*[[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique]]
*[[Puncture Impact Test]]
*[[Pure Shear-Specimen]]
}}

== Q ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Quasi-static Test Methods]]
*Quasi-static Short-term tests (see [[Elastic Modulus]])
}}

== R ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Radusch, Hans-Joachim]]
*[[Ramps, Clods and Steps]]
*R-Curve Concept (see [[Crack Resistance (R) Curve]])
*[[Rebound Resilience Elastomers]]
*[[Reflection Light]]
*Reflection Sound Waves (see [[Ultrasonic Waves Reflection]])
*[[Refraction Index]]
*Refraction Law (see [[Refraction Light]] and [[Refraction Sound Waves]])
*[[Refraction Light]]
*[[Refraction Sound Waves]]
*Refractive Index (see [[Refraction Index]])
*[[Reincke, Katrin]]
*[[Relaxation Behaviour Determination]]
*[[Relaxation Plastics]]
*Residual Stress ( see [[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations]])
*[[Resolution Material Testing Machine]]
*[[Resolution Microscope]]
*[[Resonance Analysis]] (Acoustic)
*[[RICE, PARIS and MERKLE – J-Integral Estimation Method]]
*Rise Time Electronic Measuring Chain (see [[ICIT – Experimental Conditions]])
*[[ROCKWELL Hardness]]
*[[Round Specimen]]
*[[Round Robin Test]]
}}

== S ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)]]
*[[Scanning Electron Microscopy]] (SEM)
*[[Scratch Hardness]]
*[[Scratch Resistance]]
*[[Sealed Beam]]
*Secant Modulus (see [[Flexural Modulus]], [[Elastic Modulus]] and [[Compression Test]])
*[[Seidler, Sabine]]
*[[SENB-Specimen]] (Single-Edge-Notched-Bend)-specimen
*[[SENT-Specimen]] (Single-Edge-Notched-Tension)-specimen
*[[Servo-hydraulic Testing Machine]]
*[[Shear Band Formation]]
*Shear Fracture (see [[Fracture Types]])
*[[Shear Modulus]]
*[[Shear Viscosity]]
*[[Shearography]]
*[[SHORE Hardness]]
*[[SHORE Hardness – Material Development Elastomers]]
*Short Symbols – Plastics (see [[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms]])
*Short-beam Bend Test (see [[Interlaminar Shear Strength]])
*[[Short-fibre Reinforced Plastics]]
*[[Shrink Voids]]
*Shrinkage (see [[Processing Shrinkage]])
*[[Shrinkage Test]]
*Simple Beam Theory (SBT) (see [[Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values]])
*[[Sink Mark]]
*[[Slenderness Ratio]]
*[[Slow Crack Growth]]
*[[Smart Materials]]
*SNEDDON-Williams-Equations (see [[Crack Model according to GRIFFITH]])
*SNELLIUS' Law of Refraction (see [[Ultrasonic Birefringence]] and [[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors]])
*Sonography (see [[Ultrasound Testing]])
*Sound Absorption Coefficient (see [[Elastic Modulus]])
*[[Sound Emission]]
*[[Sound Emission Analysis]]
*[[Sound Emission Experimental Conditions]]
*[[Sound Emission Testing]]
*[[Sound Power]]
*[[Sound Pressure]]
*[[Sound Test]]
*[[Sound Velocity]]
*[[Specimen]]
*[[Specimen Clamping]]
*[[Specimen Compliance]]
*[[Specimen for Fracture Mechanics Tests]]
*Specimen Shapes For Fatigue Tests (see [[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests]])
*Speed (see [[Velocity]])
*[[Spherulitic Structure]]
*[[Squirter Technique]]
*Stability Time (see [[Thermostability PVC]])
*[[Standard Atmospheres]]
*[[Standard Small Bar]]
*STEFAN-BOLTZMANN Constant (see [[Thermography]])
*[[Stepped Isothermal Method, Macro Indentation Method]]
*[[Stepped Isothermal Method, Tensile Stress]]
*[[Stiffness]] (see also [[Machine Compliance]] and [[Specimen Compliance]])
*[[Strain Gauge]]
*[[Strain Hardening Test (SHT)]]
*[[Strain Rate Applications]]
*[[Strain Rate Basics]]
*[[Strength]]
*[[Stretch Zone]]
*[[Stress]]
*[[Stress Cracking Corrosion]]
*Stress Cracking Resistance (see [[Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance]])
*Stress Intensity Factor (see [[Fracture Mechanics]] and [[SENB-Specimen]])
*[[SUMPTER and TURNER – J-Integral Estimation Method]] (ST) – J-integral estimation method
*[[Support Distance]]
*Support Span (see [[Support Distance]])
*[[Surface]]
*[[Surface Energy]]
*[[Surface Resistance]]
*[[Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension]]
*[[Surface Testing Technology]]
*Swelling (see [[Water Absorption]])
}}

== T ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[TABOR Relationship]]
*Tangent Modulus (see [[Elastic Modulus]] and [[Shear Modulus]])
*[[T-Peel Test]]
*[[Tear Test]]
*Tearing Energy (see [[Trouser Specimen]])
*[[Temperature Conductivity]]
*[[Temperature-modulated Differential Scanning Calorimetry (TMDSC)]]
*[[Tensile Creep Test]]
*[[Tensile Impact Test]]
*Tensile Strain at Break (see [[Tensile Strength]])
*[[Tensile Strength]]
*[[Tensile Test]]
*[[Tensile Test and Sound Emission Analysis]]
*[[Tensile Test Compliance]]
*[[Tensile Test Control]]
*[[Tensile Test Event-related Interpretation]]
*[[Tensile Test Influences]]
*[[Tensile Test Overlapping Creep Relaxation]]
*[[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations]]
*[[Tensile Test True Stress–Strain Diagram]]
*[[Tensile Test Uniform Elongation]]
*Tensile Test Specimen (see [[Multipurpose Test Specimen]])
*[[Test Climate]]
*[[Testing]]
*Testing of Composite Materials (see [[Composite Materials Testing]])
*[[Testing Microcomponents]]
*[[Testing Plastic Packaging]]
*[[Test Piece]]
*Test Specimen (see [[Specimen]])
*[[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests]]
*[[Test Speed]]
*[[TDCB-Specimen]] (Tapered-Double-Cantilever Beam-specimen)
*[[Thermal Conductivity]]
*Thermal Diffusivity (see [[Temperature Conductivity]])
*[[Thermal Expansion Coefficient]]
*[[Thermal Strain Analysis]]
*[[Thermal Stress Analysis]]
*[[Thermoelastic Effect]]
*[[Thermography]]
*[[Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)]]
*[[Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)]]
*[[Thermoplastic Material]]
*[[Thermosets]]
*[[Thermostability PVC]]
*[[Threads, Tips and Films]]
*Three-point Bend Test (see [[Bend Test]] and [[Bend Test – Influences]])
*Three-point Bend Specimen (see [[SENB-Specimen]])
*[[Time–Temperature Shift Law]]
*Titration Method (see [[Density]])
*[[Toughness]]
*[[Toughness Temperature Dependence]]
*[[Tracking]]
*[[Transmission Light]]
*[[Transmission Electron Microscopy]]
*[[Transmission Sound Waves]]
*Transverse Contraction (see [[Poisson's Ratio]])
*[[Trapezoidal Specimen]]
*Triaxial Loading (see [[Multiaxial Stress State]])
*Tribological Stress (see [[Stress]])
*[[Trouser Specimen]]
}}

==U==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Ultrasonic Angle Beam Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Birefringence]]
*[[Ultrasonic Compact Impedance (UCI) Hardness]]
*[[Ultrasonic Composite Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Direct Coupling]]
*Ultrasonic Imaging Inspection (see [[Imaging Ultrasonic Testing]])
*[[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Technique]]
*[[Ultrasonic Immersion Bath Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Laser Excitation]]
*Ultrasonic Microscopy (see [[Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)]])
*[[Ultrasonic Modulation]]
*[[Ultrasonic Phased Array Sensors]]
*Ultrasonic Pulse-echo Technique (see [[Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic Technique]])
*[[Ultrasonic Runtime Measurement]]
*[[Ultrasonic Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Shock Wave Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Standard Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique]]
*[[Ultrasonic Transmission Technique]]
*[[Ultrasonic Transmitter(S)-Receiver(E) Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Plate Waves Sensors]]
*[[Ultrasonic Wall Thickness Measurement]]
*[[Ultrasonic Waves Reflection]]
*[[Ultrasonic Weld Inspection]]
*[[Ultrasound – Elastic Parameters]]
*[[Ultrasound Guided Waves]]
*[[Ultrasound Testing]]
*[[Uniaxial Stress State]]
*Uniform Elongation (see [[Tensile Test Uniform Elongation]])
*[[Universal Hardness]]
*Universal Testing Machine (see [[Material Testing Machine]])
}}

==V==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*Vacuoles (see [[Shrink Voids]])
*Value (see [[Material Value]])
*[[Valve Movement Test]]
*[[Velocity]]
*[[Verification]]
*[[Vibration Fracture]]
*[[Vibration-induced Creep Fracture]]
*[[Vibration Strength]]
*Vibration Test (see [[Continuous Vibration Test]])
*[[Vicat Softening Temperature]]
*[[Vickers Hardness]]
*[[Video Extensometry]]
*Viscoelasticity (see [[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour]] and [[Viscoelastic Material Behaviour]])
*[[Viscoelastic Material Behaviour]]
*Viscous Deformation (see [[Deformation]])
*[[Viscosity]]
*[[Volume Resistance]]
*[[Volume Swelling Elastomers]]
*[[Vu-Khanh Method]]
*[[Vulcanization]]
}}

==W==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[Water Absorption]]
*[[Waves and Arrest Lines]]
*Wear (see [[Abrasion Elastomers]])
*[[WinICIT-Software]]
*Wheatstone Bridge (see [[Strain Gauge]])
*[[Weld Line]]
* WU & FOWKES method (see [[Surface Tension and Interfacial Tension]])
}}

==Y==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*YOUNG-DUPRÉ Equation (see [[Surface Energy]])
*Young's Modulus (see [[IRHD Hardness]] and [[Elastic Modulus]])
*Yield Fracture Mechanics (see [[Fracture Mechanics]])
*Yield Point (see [[Yield Stress]])
*[[Yield Stress]]
}}

== Categories ==
{{Mehrspaltige Liste |breite=30em |liste=
*[[:Category:Guest Contributions|Guest Contributions]]

*[[:Category:Acoustic Test Methods_Ultrasonics|Acoustic Test Methods/Ultrasonics]]
*[[:Category:Ageing|Ageing]]
*[[:Category:Bend Test|Bend Test]]
*[[:Category:Colour and Gloss|Colour and Gloss]]
*[[:Category:Compression Test|Compression Test]]
*[[:Category:Creep Behaviour Plastics|Creep Behaviour Plastics]]
*[[:Category:Damage Analysis_Component Failure|Damage Analysis/Component Failure]]
*[[:Category:Deformation|Deformation]]
*[[:Category:Elastomers|Elastomers]]
*[[:Category:Electrical and Dielectrical Testing|Electrical and Dielectrical Testing]]
*[[:Category:Fatigue|Fatigue]]
*[[:Category:Film Testing|Film Testing]]
*[[:Category:Fire Behaviour|Fire Behaviour]]
*[[:Category:Fracture Mechanics|Fracture Mechanics]]
*[[:Category:Hardness|Hardness]]
*[[:Category:Hybrid Methods|Hybrid Methods]]
*[[:Category:Impact Tests|Impact Tests]]
*[[:Category:Implant Testing|Implant Testing]]
*[[:Category:Instrumented Impact Test|Instrumented Impact Test]]
*[[:Category:Laser Extensometry|Laser Extensometry]]
*[[:Category:Light|Light]]
*[[:Category:Material Scientists Polymer Scientists|Material Scientists/Polymer Scientists]]
*[[:Category:Materials Science_Materials Engineering|Materials Science/Materials Engineering]]
*[[:Category:Measurement Testing Technology|Measurement Testing Technology]] (Measurement Data Aquisition)
*[[:Category:Morphology and Micromechanics|Morphology and Micromechanics]]
*[[:Category:Optical Field Measurement Methods|Optical Field Measurement Methods]]
*[[:Category:Peel Test|Peel Test]]
*[[:Category:Plastics|Plastics]]
*[[:Category:Process-related Properties|Process-related Properties]]
*[[:Category:Scientific Disciplines|Scientific Disciplines]]
*[[:Category:Specimen|Specimen]]
*[[:Category:Specimen Preparation|Specimen Preparation]]
*[[:Category:Stiffness Compliance|Stiffness/Compliance]]
*[[:Category:Stress Cracking Resistance|Stress Cracking Resistance]]
*[[:Category:Surface Testing Technology|Surface Testing Technology]]
*[[:Category:Tensile Test|Tensile Test]]
*[[:Category:Thermoanalytical Methods|Thermoanalytical Methods]]
*[[:Category:Velocity|Velocity]]
}}

File:Z einfluesse 4.jpg

2026-01-09T09:41:45Z

Oluschinski:

File:Z einfluesse 3.jpg

2026-01-09T09:41:36Z

Oluschinski:

File:Z einfluesse 2.jpg

2026-01-09T09:41:28Z

Oluschinski:

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2026-01-09T09:41:19Z

Oluschinski:

Tensile Test Influences

2026-01-09T09:39:47Z

Oluschinski: Created page with "{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Zugversuch Einflüsse}} {{PSM_Infobox}} Tensile test influences __FORCETOC__ ==Influencing factors== In conventional tensile testing of plastics, there are numerous influencing factors that can affect the deformation behaviour and the absolute value of the material values. These factors are related to the testing techno..."

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Zugversuch Einflüsse}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Tensile test influences
__FORCETOC__

==Influencing factors==

In conventional [[Tensile Test|tensile testing]] of [[Plastics|plastics]], there are numerous influencing factors that can affect the [[Deformation|deformation]] behaviour and the absolute value of the [[Material Value|material values]]. These factors are related to the testing technology and conditions as well as the geometry and internal state of the test [[Specimen|specimens]]. These influences also occur when the basic conditions for reproducible characteristic value determination are met, such as comparable chemical and physical structure (see: [[Microscopic Structure|microscopic structure]]), identical geometric conditions and identical testing methodology [1]. The theoretical requirements of the [[Tensile Test|tensile test]] include impact-free load application at a constant [[Crosshead Speed|crosshead speed]], the creation of a [[Uniaxial Stress State|uniaxial load and stress state]] in the test cross-section, a homogeneous and isotropic internal state in the test specimen, and no occurrence of geometric imperfections, such as [[Notch|notches]], as well as no influences from the testing technology. Since these conditions apply to prismatic test specimens and an ideally rigid [[Material Testing Machine|testing machine]], the shoulders of the test specimens represent an imperfection and the testing technique influences the measurement result in the tensile test due to its [[Tensile Test Compliance|compliance]]. These influencing factors can be avoided or minimised by using [[Tensile Test Control|controlled tensile tests]], which, however, are not standardised for plastics, unlike the testing of metallic [[Material & Werkstoff|materials]].

==Influence of specimen shape on strain rate==

In conventional [[Tensile Test|tensile testing]], the actual nominal strain rate d''ε''t/d''t'' across the entire test specimen volume can be calculated from the set [[Crosshead Speed|crosshead speed]] ''v''T ('''Eq. 1''').

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>v_{T}=\frac{d\varepsilon}{dt} L</math>
|width="50px" |(1)
|}

If the normative strain rate d''ε''/d''t'' in the plane-parallel test specimen section is controlled by using extensometers with an ''L''0 of 75 mm, it can be seen that the set nominal and normative strain rates are different. The causes can be found in the shoulders of the test specimens and the effects of [[Machine Compliance|machine compliance]], as there are different and variable cross-sections ('''Fig. 1''') on the one hand, and deformations of the [[Material Testing Machine|universal testing machine]] on the other.

[[file:Z_einfluesse_1.jpg|350px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Nominal and normative [[Strain Rate|strain rate]] of a test [[Specimen|specimen]] in a tensile test
|}

It can be seen that the normative [[Velocity|test speed]] in the plane-parallel section is theoretically constant, but greater than the nominal strain rate (see '''Eq. 2''').

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>\varepsilon =\frac{FL}{E_{t}A_{0}L_{0}}</math>
|width="50px" |(2)
|}

The mechanical strain depends on the applied load ''F'' and the [[Elastic Modulus|modulus of elasticity]] ''E''t of the material, but also on the cross-sectional area ''A''0 of the test specimen, which is why the [[Strain Rate Basics|strain rate]] is significantly lower in the shoulder area. For standardised, constantly repeated tests, this deviation is negligible, but for scientific investigations, this difference can distort the [[Material Value|characteristic values]] to be determined. Significant differences can be seen in practical comparisons on plastic test specimens with a nominal strain rate of 1 %/min. While the nominal strain rate does not change due to the constant [[Crosshead Speed|crosshead speed]], the normative strain rate shows a dependence on the strain and only reaches the required value at one point in time (red dot in '''Fig. 2''').

[[file:Z_einfluesse_2.jpg|400px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px" |Nominal and normative strain rate of a PA 6 test specimen with 20 % GF in a conventional tensile test with constant [[Crosshead Speed|crosshead speed]]
|}

This behaviour is due to the [[Heterogeneity|heterogeneity]] and [[Anisotropy|anisotropy]] of the internal state resulting from differing orientations and [[Tensile Test Residual Stresses Orientations|residual stresses]] originating from the manufacturing process of the test [[Specimen|specimen]]. To minimise the influence of the shoulders on the strain rate distribution, the geometry of the test specimen must therefore be corrected over a reduced length [2, 3]. The geometric data of the test specimen ('''Fig. 3''') is used to calculate the average thickness ''b''m in the shoulder area using the auxiliary variable ''a'' ('''Eqs. 3''' and '''4'''). Knowing the different lengths in the test specimen ('''Eq. 5'''), the corrected or reduced length of the test specimen can then be determined ('''Eq. 6'''). '''Eq. (7)''' is then used to determine the required [[Velocity|test speed]] and set it as the [[Crosshead Speed|crosshead speed]] on the [[Material Testing Machine|universal testing machine]].

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>a=1+\frac{b}{2r}</math>
|width="50px" |(3)
|}

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>b_{m}=\frac{l_{m}}{\frac{a}{\sqrt{a^{2}-1}}arc tan \frac{(a+1) tan \left [ \frac{1}{2}arc sin\frac{l_{m}}{r} \right ]}{\sqrt{a^{2}-1}}-\frac{1}{2}arc sin \frac{l_{m}}{r}}</math>
|width="50px" |(4)
|}

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>L=l_{s}+2l_{m}+2l_{e} </math>
|width="50px" |(5)
|}

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>L_{red}=b\left [ \frac{l_{s}}{b}+\frac{2l_{m}}{b_{m}}+\frac{2l_{e}}{b_{e}} \right ]</math>
|width="50px" |(6)
|}

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>v_{T red}=\frac{d\varepsilon }{dt}L_{red}</math>
|width="50px" |(7)
|}

[[file:Z_einfluesse_3.jpg|400px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px" |Determination of the reduced length of the test specimen for correction of the [[Velocity|test speed]]
|}

An experimental determination of a correction factor is obtained by removing the shoulders of the test specimen, resulting in a prismatic [[Specimen|test specimen]] made of the identical material ('''Fig. 4''').

[[file:Z_einfluesse_4.jpg|150px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 4''':
|width="600px" |Determination of the corrected [[Crosshead Speed|crosshead speed]]
|}

The normative strain rate d''ε''/d''t'' is determined on at least 5 prismatic test specimens and shoulder test specimens at an identical [[Crosshead Speed|crosshead speed]] corresponding to the nominal strain rate d''ε''t/d''t'', using extensometers with identical ''L''0, and the respective mean value is calculated. The correction factor ''k'' is obtained from the quotient of the two strain rates ('''Eq. 8'''), which can then be used to calculate the corrected crosshead speed ('''Eq. 9''').

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>k=\frac{\frac{d\varepsilon _{1}}{dt}}{\frac{d\varepsilon _{2}}{dt}}</math>
|width="50px" |(8)
|}

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>v_{Tkorr}=\frac{d\varepsilon }{dt}Lk</math>
|width="50px" |(9)
|}

==Influence of [[Machine Compliance|compliance]] on strain and [[Strain Rate Applications|strain rate]]==

When performing conventional [[Tensile Test|tensile tests]] with constant [[Crosshead Speed|crosshead speed]] in accordance with ISO 527-1 [4], the determination of characteristic values is influenced by unavoidable influencing factors. This is particularly evident in the determination of the [[Elastic Modulus|modulus of elasticity]] ''E''t according to '''Eq. (10)'''. Here, it is assumed that only the pure specimen elongation ΔLP is included in the dimensionless strain. However, due to the external load, the different components of the [[Material Testing Machine|universal testing machine]] are also deformed, which is also known as [[Machine Compliance|machine compliance]].

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>E_{t}=\frac{\sigma }{\varepsilon }=\frac{FL_{0}}{A_{0}\Delta L_{P}}</math>
|width="50px" |(10)
|}

Here, the deformation of the machine columns and the spindle, the bending of the crosshead and the traverse are included in the measurement signal as Δ''L''F if the traverse path is used as the [[Measured Variable|measured variable]]. The absolute errors are relatively small here. A larger proportion is contributed by the [[Deformation|deformation]] of the force transducer Δ''L''K and, in particular, the slip in the clamping jaws Δ''L''E. The measurement signal Δ''L''M therefore consists of the sum of the individual deformation components Δ''L''M = Δ''L''P + Δ''L''F + Δ''L''K + Δ''L''E and essentially determines the [[Machine Compliance|compliance of the test system]]. Any change in configuration (force transducer (see: [[Electro-mechanical Force Transducer|electro-mechanical force transducer]] and [[Piezoelectric Force Transducer|piezoelectric force transducer]]), extension rods, [[Specimen Clamping|clamping jaws]] or jaw inserts, see: [[Tensile Test Compliance|tensile test compliance]]) changes the compliance value. It is clear from this that the greater the value of the elongation Δ''L'', the smaller the modulus of elasticity becomes. To avoid these measurement effects, the [[Elastic Modulus|modulus of elasticity]] should be measured using strain extensometers or clip-on gauges, as these influencing factors then act outside the measuring length and are not recorded.

If the use of crosshead path measurement is unavoidable, e.g. for tests in a temperature-controlled chamber, the [[Tensile Test Compliance|compliance]] for the test configuration used should be known or determined in order to correct the measured strain. Since the compliance ''K'' also affects the test [[Velocity|speed]], in the case of crosshead path measurement, with knowledge of the modulus ''M'' and the clamping length ''L'', a correction must also be made to the [[Crosshead Speed|crosshead speed]] ('''Eq. 11'''), which takes into account the proportion of self-deformation of the test system.

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>\frac{d\varepsilon _{t}}{dt}=\frac{V_{T}}{L+A_{0}KM}</math>
|width="50px" |(11)
|}

==See also==

* [[Bend Test – Influences|Bend test – influences]]
* [[Tensile Test True Stress–Strain Diagram|Tensile test true stress–strain diagram]]
* [[Shrinkage Test|Shrinkage test]]

'''Referecnces'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|[[Bierögel, Christian|Bierögel, C.]]: Tensile Test on Polymers. In: [[Grellmann, Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler, Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022) 3rd Edition, pp. 106–123 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book: ISBN 978-1-56990-807-5; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 22)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|DIN 53455 (1981-08): Testing of Plastics – Tensile Test (withdrawn)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|DIN 53457 (1987-10): Testing of Plastics – Determination of Elastic Modulus by Tensile, Compression and Bend Testing (withdrawn)
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|ISO 527-1 (2019-07): Plastics – Determination of Tensile Properties – Part 1: General Principles
|}

[[category: Tensile Test]]

Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg

2026-01-08T13:49:32Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg (PSM)
__FORCETOC__

In view of the existing German-wide gaps, particularly in the Central German region, between basic research and application-orientated research on the one hand and industry-related research and development on the other, Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg (PSM) has defined its activities in this field.

The founding of PSM in 2001, in conjunction with the Institute for Polymer Materials ([http://www.ipw-merseburg.de Institut für Polymerwerkstoffe – IPW]), which was able to provide essential support as a co-founder, and the BMBF Demonstration Centre ‘Circular Sustainability of Materials’, was intended to promote the rapid implementation of research results with a corresponding degree of ripeness in industrial use.

Today, PSM offers a broad portfolio of services in the field of [[Material Science & Plastics | material science & plastics]], ranging from polymer synthesis, plastics processing and [[Polymer Testing | polymer testing]] to [[Fracture Behaviour of Plastics Components | failure analysis]] by officially qualified experts. You can find an overview of our range of services on our homepage.

[https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de PSM GmbH's range] of services consists of taking on business-related research and development work in the field of plastics technology as well as engineering services for implementation in industrial technologies and products. The wide range of services offered by PSM GmbH is made possible by utilising the innovation potential between the company and the Halle-Merseburg Plastics Competence Centre (KKZ Halle-Merseburg), which is supported by [http://www.uni-halle.de/ Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg] and [https://www.hs-merseburg.de/international/ Merseburg University of Applied Sciences].

The spectrum of services also includes advising potential users on their individual questions and suggesting suitable methods for answering them. PSM's experts will submit a customised offer or discuss the scientific and technical problems or cases of damage in a personal meeting, naturally in strict confidence.

Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg was founded in 2001 as an affiliated institute (An-Institute) at Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (MLU) and has been an affiliated institute at Merseburg University of Applied Sciences (HoMe) since 2014.

'''See also'''

* [[Cover Wiki-lexicon: Polymer Testing & Diagnostics|Wiki-lexicon "Polymer Testing & Diagnostics"]]
* [[Material Science & Plastics | Material science & Plastics]]
* [[Material & Werkstoff]]
* [[Polymer Diagnostic | Polymer diagnostic]]
* [[Plastics]]
* [[Micromechanics & Nanomechanics]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|[[Grellmann, Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler, Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Kunststoffprüfung. Carl Hanser Munich (2024) 4th Edition, pp. 1–5 (ISBN 978-3-446-44718-9; e-Book: ISBN 978-3-446-48105-3; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung | AMK-Library]] under A 23)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|[https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Grellmann Grellmann, W.], [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabine_Seidler Seidler, S.] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Munich, 3rd Edition (2022) p. 124 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; e-book 978-1-56990-807-5; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 22)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.], Seidler S. (Eds.): Deformation and Fracture Behaviour of Polymers. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2001, 626 Pages, 447 Illustrations and 51 Tables (ISBN 3-540-41247-6, ISBN 978-3-540-41247-2; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 7)
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|Grellmann, W., Seidler, S. (Eds.): Deformation und Bruchverhalten von Kunststoffen. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1998, 525 Seiten, 370 Abbildungen, 44 Tabellen (ISBN 3-540-63671-4; e-Book (2014): ISBN 978-3-642-58766-5; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 6)
|-valign="top"
|[5]
|[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.], Langer, B. (Eds.): Deformation and Fracture Behaviour of Polymer Materials. Springer Series in Materials Science 247, Springer Berlin Heidelberg (2017) 283–296 (ISBN 978-3-319-41877-3; e-Book: ISBN 978-3-319-41879-7; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 19) https://springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-41879-7
|-valign="top"
|[6]
|[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.], Seidler, S.: Mechanical and Thermomechanical Properties of Polymers. Landolt-Börnstein. Volume VIII/6A3, Springer, Berlin (2014) 241–285 (ISBN 978-3642-55165-9; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung | AMK-Library]] under A 16)
|-valign="top"
|[7]
|Grellmann, W., [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gert_Heinrich Heinrich, G.], Kaliske, M., Klüppel, M., Schneider, K., [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Vilgis Vilgis, T.]: Fracture Mechanics and Statistical Mechanics of Reinforced Elastomeric Blends. Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2013 (ISBN 978-3-642-37909-3, see [[AMK-Büchersammlung | AMK-Library]] under A 14)
|}
* For more books on plastics testing and technical fracture mechanics of plastics and composites, see [[AMK-Büchersammlung | AMK-Library]]

'''Weblinks'''

* [https://www.psm-merseburg.de Homepage Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg]
* [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_Service_Merseburg Wikipedia – Die freie Enzyklopädie: Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg]
* [https://www.kunststoffweb.de/firmen/polymer_service_gmbh_merseburg_f106837 Kunststoff-Web]
* [https://forschung-sachsen-anhalt.de/structure/polymer-service-gmbh-merseburg-e142/ Forschungsportal Sachsen-Anhalt]

'''Follow us / Social media'''

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File:Lochbildung Kunststoffe-4.JPG

2026-01-08T13:26:10Z

Oluschinski:

File:Lochbildung Kunststoffe-3.JPG

2026-01-08T13:26:02Z

Oluschinski:

File:Lochbildung Kunststoffe-2.JPG

2026-01-08T13:25:52Z

Oluschinski:

File:Lochbildung Kunststoffe-1.JPG

2026-01-08T13:25:40Z

Oluschinski:

Hole Formation Plastics

2026-01-08T13:22:30Z

Oluschinski: Created page with "{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Lochbildung Kunststoffe}} {{PSM_Infobox}} Hole formation plastics and sponge or foam structures __FORCETOC__ ==General information== The failure of plastic components is usually initiated by microscopic crack formation processes, which cause a macroscopic fracture surface after the Fracture Type..."

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Lochbildung Kunststoffe}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Hole formation plastics and sponge or foam structures
__FORCETOC__

==General information==

The [[Component Failure|failure]] of [[Plastic Component|plastic components]] is usually initiated by microscopic crack [[Fracture Formation|formation processes]], which cause a macroscopic [[Fracture Surface|fracture surface]] after the [[Fracture Types|ultimate fracture]]. Depending on the [[Fracture Behaviour|material behaviour]] of the [[Plastics|plastics]], the [[Fracture|fracture]] is preceded by stable [[Crack Propagation|crack propagation]], which ultimately ends in unstable crack propagation with [[Energy Release Rate|energy release]], also known as burst fracture [1, 2].

In the [[Failure Analysis – Basics|damage analysis]] of the causes of failure, it is essential to determine the location of [[Crack Initiation|crack initiation]] and the direction of crack propagation in order to gain insights into the damage progression and the [[Stress|stress]] parameters [3].

Microscopic analysis of the resulting fracture surfaces can provide further information about the type and level of stress, the influence of temperature and media, the [[Test Speed|test speed]], [[Ageing|ageing]] effects and processing errors.

The main objective of [[Failure Analysis Plastic Products, VDI Guideline 3822|damage analysis]] is therefore to determine the location of crack initiation, the fracture path and its direction of propagation, as well as the crack propagation speed, the [[Fracture Types|type of fracture]] (ductile or brittle) and possible [[Brittle Fracture Promoting Factors|brittle fracture promoting factors]].

The VDI 3822 guideline – Failure Analysis of Plastics – [4] summarises and classifies the characteristic failure features visible on plastic [[Fracture Surface|fracture surfaces]]. However, only a few specific features provide information about the direction of [[Crack Propagation|crack propagation]] and the location of [[Crack Initiation|crack initiation]]. These are the so-called [[Fracture Parables|fracture parabolas]] or hyperbola, also known as U- or V-ramps, and the [[Ramps, Clods and Steps|ramps, clods and steps]], which are used as synonymous terms in VDI 3822 [4–6]. Such information cannot normally be derived from the fracture surface features of [[Threads, Tips and Films|tips, films and threads]], nor from the formation of.

==Hole formation and sponge or foam structures==

The fracture characteristics of hole formation and sponge or foam structures develop in particular depending on the prevailing [[Plain Stress and Strain State|stress state]], i.e. also the component thickness (see also: [[Geometry Criterion|geometry criterion]]), and are frequently observed in multiphase or [[Particle-filled Thermoplastics|filled plastics]], for example, although the type of [[Plastics|plastic]] (amorphous or semi-crystalline) also has a significant influence [5]. In the VDI 3822 guideline, these fracture surface characteristics (see [[Fracture Types|types of fracture]]) are characterised by the following symbols ('''Figure 1''') [4].

[[file:Lochbildung_Kunststoffe-1.JPG|500px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''FIg. 1''':
|width="600px"|Schematic representation of (a) holes with inclusions, (b) [[Micropores|pores]] or holes, and (c) sponge or foam structures [4]
|}

Holes or cavitations ('''Fig. 1a''') tend to occur in filled plastics with [[Ductility Plastics|ductile material]] behaviour. The particles can be organic (ethylene propylene diene rubber ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: EPDM), ethylene propylene rubber (EPR)) or inorganic (talc, glass beads). The expansion of the cavitations that occur depends largely on the volume content and the particle size or diameter ''d''. This results in an average particle spacing ''D'' with a homogeneous dispersion of the particles, which in turn influences the so-called cavitation length ''L'' under stress ('''Fig. 2a'''). With increasing [[Quasi-static Test Methods|quasi-static]] or [[Impact Loading Plastics|impact loading]], increasing shear stress develops in the [[Material & Werkstoff|material]] (see: [[Shear Band Formation|shear band formation]]), which initially leads to isolated holes ('''Fig. 2b''') and then to large-area cavitations, which are also referred to as local deformation with a halo around the inclusion.

[[file:Lochbildung_Kunststoffe-2.JPG|500px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px"|Schematic representation of (a) the formation of holes and (b) hole formation with inclusion in a notched tensile test specimen made of polyethylene (abbreviation: PE) at 23 °C [4]
|}

Pores or small holes, which can also occur as fields, arise during processing or as a result of mechanical [[Stress|stress]]. If the granulate is damp or the melt is not degassed properly, gases can form as a result of the processing temperature. Due to volume expansion, especially in the case of large wall thicknesses or jumps, these gases can lead to holes or cavities in the centre of the component ('''Fig. 1b''') (see: [[Gas Bubbles|gas bubbles]]). Mechanical stress, especially in the case of [[Multiaxial Stress State|multiaxial stress states]] and heterophasic plastics, can also lead to large areas of pores or holes, although their local extent is smaller than in the case of cavities ('''Fig. 3a''').

[[file:Lochbildung_Kunststoffe-3.JPG|500px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px"|[[Fracture Surface|Fracture surface]] of a polypropylene/EPR blend with (a) pores or holes under impact loading at 23 °C and (b) sponge structure on the cryogenic fracture surface (crack arrest and N2 cooling) of the polypropylene/EPR blend [4]
|}

Foam or sponge structures can also occur in [[Multiaxial Stress State|triaxial stress states]] and multiphase plastics, but only in the case of very large plastic deformations ('''Fig. 3b'''). In this case, [[Threads, Tips and Films|tips]] may also form at the edges of the foam structure, but their dimensions are significantly smaller than those of [[Ramps, Clods and Steps|ramps]]. Compared to the hole structures, the geometry of the sponges or foams is much more irregular and has open and closed cell structures.

These fracture characteristics should not be confused with the holes in [[Short-fibre Reinforced Plastics|short glass fibre reinforced plastics]] that occur during the [[Fracture Behaviour|pull-out of glass fibres]] ('''Fig. 4''').

[[file:Lochbildung_Kunststoffe-4.JPG|500px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 4''':
|width="600px"|Fracture surfaces of (a) polyamide 6 ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PA 6) with 10 wt.-% GF and (b) polyamide 66 ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms|abbreviation]]: PA 66) with 20 wt.-% GF under [[Quasi-static Test Methods|quasi-static]] [[Tensile Test|tensile stress]] [7]
|}

Another example of the damage phenomenon known as hole formation is presented in the article ‘[[Hole Formation Films|Hole formation films]]’, where damage begins on the surface of a biopolymer film (see: [[Bio-Plastics|bio-plastics]]) [8].

==See also==

Further information on the pull-out of glass fibres in [[Polymer|polymeric]] or [[Thermosets|duromeric]] matrix materials can be found in the following articles:

* [[Fibre–Matrix Adhesion|Fibre–matrix adhesion]]
* [[Equivalent Energy Concept – Application Limits|Equivalent energy concept – Application limits]]
* [[Fracture Behaviour|Fracture behaviour]]
* [[Fibre-reinforced Plastics Fracture Model|Fibre-reinforced plastics fracture model]]
* [[Hybrid Methods, Examples|Hybrid methods, examples]]
* [[In-situ Tensile Test in ESEM with AE|In-situ tensile test in ESEM with AE]]
* [[Ultrasound Testing|Ultrasound testing]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|[[Grellmann, Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]]: Beurteilung der Zähigkeitseigenschaften von Polymerwerkstoffen durch bruchmechanische Kennwerte. Habilitation (1986), [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technische_Hochschule_Leuna-Merseburg Technische Hochschule Merseburg], Wiss. Zeitschrift TH Merseburg 28 (1986), H 6, pp. 787–788 ([http://web.hs-merseburg.de/~amk/files/veroeffentlichungen/Habil_Grellmann_Inhaltsverzeichnis.pdf Inhaltsverzeichnis], [http://web.hs-merseburg.de/~amk/files/veroeffentlichungen/Habil_Grellmann_Kurzfassung.pdf Kurzfassung])
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.], [[Seidler, Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Deformation and Fracture Behaviour of Polymers. Springer, Berlin (1200), (ISBN 3-540-41247-6; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 6)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|Kotter, I., [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Grellmann Grellmann, W.]: Die Fraktografie als Hilfsmittel in der Schadensanalyse an Kunststoffprodukten. 24. Internationale Fachtagung Technomer an der Technischen Universität Chemnitz, (2015), Proceedings V 8.6
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|VDI 3822 Blatt 2.1.4 (2024-06): Failure Analysis – Defects of Thermoplastic Products Made of Plastics Caused by Mechanical Stress
|-valign="top"
|[5]
|[[Ehrenstein,_Gottfried_W.|Ehrenstein, G. W.]]: Schadensanalyse an Kunststoff-Formteilen. VDI-Verlag Düsseldorf, (1981), (ISBN 3-18-404068-2; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under D 3)
|-valign="top"
|[6]
|Ehrenstein, G. W., Engel, K., Klingele, H., Schaper, H.: Scanning Electron Microscopy of Plastics Failure / REM von Kunststoffschäden. Carl Hanser, Munich (2011), (ISBN 978-3-446-42242-1; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under D 5)
|-valign="top"
|[7]
|Worch, J.: Thermische und akustische Emission kurzfaserverstärkter Thermoplaste. Diploma thesis, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Merseburg, (1995), (see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under D 3-84)
|-valign="top"
|[8]
|Monami, A., Langer, B., Grellmann, W.: Moderne Methoden der Kunststoffprüfung zur Werkstoffentwicklung und Bauteilprüfung/Modern Methods of Polymer Testing for Material Development and Testing of Components. Werkstoffprüfung 2016, Fortschritte in der Werkstoffprüfung für Forschung und Praxis 1. and 2.12.2016, Neu-Ulm, Proceedings pp. 119–124 (ISBN 978-3-514-00830-4)
|}

[[category:Damage Analysis_Component Failure]]
[[category:Ageing]]

BOLTZMANN's Superposition Principle

2026-01-08T09:11:15Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=BOLTZMANN'sches Superpositionsprinzip}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
BOLTZMANN's Superposition Principle
__FORCETOC__

==Laws of viscoelasticity==

BOLTZMANN's superposition principle, named after the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906), together with the [[Correspondence Principle|correspondence principle]] and the [[Time–Temperature Shift Law|time–temperature shift law]], is used to describe the [[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour|linear-viscoelastic behaviour]] of [[Plastics|plastics]] [1].

==Principle of superposition for relaxation and retardation==

'''Figure 1''' illustrates these relationships using diagrams of [[Relaxation Plastics|relaxation]] and [[Creep Plastics|retardation]] experiments.

[[file:boltzmann Fig.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |BOLTZMANN's superposition principle for relaxation and retardation cases
|}

BOLTZMANN's superposition principle describes the influence of mechanical history on the material behaviour of [[Plastics|plastics]]. It states that the time-dependent effects of successive changes in the stress state add up linearly and summarily to the overall effect.

==Basic assumptions==

If the strain ''ε''1(''t'') generates a stress ''σ''1(''t'') and ''ε''2(''t'') generates the stress ''σ''2(''t''), then the sum ''ε''1(''t'') + ''ε''2(''t'') causes the total stress ''σ''1(''t'') + ''σ''2(''t'').

Conversely,

if the stress ''σ''1(''t'') produces the strain ''ε''1(''t'') and ''σ''2(''t'') produces the strain ''ε''2(''t''), then the sum ''σ''1(''t'') + ''σ''2(''t'') corresponds to the total strain ''ε''1(''t'') + ''ε''2(''t'').

The principle therefore takes into account relaxation and retardation, or the creep of plastics. The BOLTZMANN superposition principle is illustrated graphically in the schematic diagram in '''Fig. 1'''.

Based on this principle, the time-dependent [[Deformation|deformation]] caused by applied loads (and vice versa) can be determined at different times with a reasonable amount of computational effort in the area of [[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour|linear-viscoelastic material behaviour]].

==See also==

* [[Correspondence Principle|Correspondence principle]]
* [[Time–Temperature Shift Law|Time–temperature shift law]]
* [[Relaxation Plastics|Relaxation plastics]]
* [[Creep Plastics|Creep plastics]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Lüpke, T.: Fundamental Principles of Mechanical Behavior. In: [[Grellmann, Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler, Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser, Munich (2022) 3rd Edition, pp. 82/83 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; E-Book: ISBN 978-1-56990-807-5; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 22)
|}

[[category:Deformation]]

Rebound Resilience Elastomers

2025-12-15T07:13:42Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Rückprallelastizität}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Rebound resilience elastomers
__FORCETOC__

==General==

Elastomeric materials are used as shock and vibration absorbers due to their damping properties. Elastomers in particular, such as natural rubber ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms | plastics – symbols and abbreviated terms]]: NR), isobutylene-isoprene rubber ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms | plastics – symbols and abbreviated terms]]: IIR), acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms | plastics – symbols and abbreviated terms]]: NBR) and styrene-butadiene rubber ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms | plastics – symbols and abbreviated terms]]: SBR) are suitable for these applications because they exhibit high damping over a wide temperature range [1].

==Definition of rebound resilience==

The determination of the rebound resilience (''R'') according to DIN 53512 [2] or ISO 4662 [3] allows an evaluation of the damping behaviour of elastomeric materials. Here, a pendulum (Schob pendulum) with a working capacity of 0.5 J strikes the surface of a test [[Specimen | specimen]] vertically at a defined [[Velocity | velocity]]. The rebound resilience is defined by the quotient of the rebound height ''h''R and the height of fall of the pendulum ''h''0 or by the ratio of the energy gained ''E''R to the energy expended ''E''A:

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math> R = \frac{h_R}{h_0} \cdot 100 \ \%</math>
|(1)
|}

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math> R = \frac{E_R}{E_A} \ \left ( \% \right )</math>
|(2)
|}

The following relationship exists between rebound resilience and loss factor tan ''δ'' for small values of the loss factor [1]:

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math> R = \frac{E_R}{E_A} = 1 - \pi \cdot tan \ \delta</math>
|(3)
|}

The higher the [[Material Value | value]] determined for the [[Material Parameter | parameter]] ''R'', the better the dynamic-mechanical behaviour (see also: [[Dynamic-Mechanical Analysis (DMA) – General Principles|Dynamic-mechanical analysis (DMA)]] – General principles) can be assessed under the test-methodical boundary conditions with regard to the type of [[Stress | stress]] and [[Test Speed | test speed]].

==Application examples==

The '''Figure 1''' shows the relationship between rebound resilience and material composition. The carbon black reinforced SBR vulcanisate shows a higher rebound resilience compared to the vulcanisate with an additional standard plasticiser. If, on the other hand, bio-based plasticisers were mixed in, higher values for rebound resilience were determined in some cases compared to the vulcanised material (see also: [[Vulcanization]]) without plasticisers. The higher the determined [[Material Value | material value]], the more elastic the material.

[[file:Rebound resilience elastomers 1.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Rebound resilience for carbon black reinforced (50 phr) SBR vulcanisates with different plasticisers (15 phr) (own investigations [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_Service_Merseburg Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg (PSM))])
|}

A direct correlation between the rebound resilience and the [[SHORE Hardness | SHORE A hardness]] material values (see Table 1) cannot be established. The highest Shore A hardness value of A 72 was determined for the vulcanisate without plasticiser (SBR/carbon black). However, the highest values for rebound resilience were determined for the vulcanisates with bio-based plasticiser 1, with 54 SHORE A.

'''Table 1:''' SHORE A hardness values for carbon black reinforced (50 phr) SBR vulcanisates with different plasticisers (own studies [https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg (PSM))])

{| border="1px" style="border-collapse:collapse"
!! style="width:300px; background:#DCDCDC" | Vulcanisate
!! style="width:200px; background:#DCDCDC" | SHORE A (-)

|-
|SBR/carbon black
|style="text-align:center" | 72 ± 0.55
|-
|SBR/carbon black with standard plasticiser
|style="text-align:center" | 60 ± 0.21
|-
|SBR/carbon black with bio-based plasticiser 1
|style="text-align:center" | 54 ± 0.86
|-
|SBR/carbon black with bio-based plasticiser 2
|style="text-align:center" | 55 ± 0.61
|-
|SBR/carbon black with bio-based plasticiser 3
|style="text-align:center" | 56 ± 0.53
|}

The investigations show that elastomers with the same SHORE A hardness values can have very different rebound resilience. Finally, the rebound resilience enables a statement to be made about the hysteresis behaviour (see also: [[Compression Hardness | compression hardness]]) under impact stress, which describes the purely elastic behaviour of a material.

==Correlation of rebound resilience with SHORE A hardness==

From the application example, it becomes clear that it is difficult to conclude the rebound resilience from the SHORE A hardness, which is relatively easy to determine experimentally. Rebound resilience is a structure-sensitive material parameter that depends on the elastomer type, the material formulation (with plasticiser) and the test temperature.

==See also==

*[[Vulcanization]]
*[[Elasticity]]
*[[Ductility Plastics |Ductility plastics]]
*[[SHORE Hardness]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Röthemeyer, F., Sommer, F.: Kautschuk Technologie. Carl Hanser Munich, 2nd revised edition (2006), (ISBN 978-3-446-40480-9)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|DIN 53512 (2000-04): Testing of Rubber – Determination of Rebound Resilience (Schob Pendulum)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|ISO 4662 (2017-06): Rubber, Vulcanized or Thermoplastic Elastomers – Determination of Rebound Resilience
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|Schnetger, J.: Lexikon Kautschuktechnik. Hüthig, 3rd completely revised and expanded edition (2004), (ISBN 978-3-7785-3022-1; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung | AMK-Library]] under K 7)
|}

[[Category:Elastomers]]
[[Category:Deformation]]
[[Category:Impact Tests]]

Rebound Resilience Elastomers

2025-12-15T07:09:55Z

Oluschinski: /* Definition of rebound resilience */

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Rückprallelastizität}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Rebound resilience elastomers
__FORCETOC__

==General==

Elastomeric materials are used as shock and vibration absorbers due to their damping properties. Elastomers in particular, such as natural rubber ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms | plastics – symbols and abbreviated terms]]: NR), isobutylene-isoprene rubber ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms | plastics – symbols and abbreviated terms]]: IIR), acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms | plastics – symbols and abbreviated terms]]: NBR) and styrene-butadiene rubber ([[Plastics – Symbols and Abbreviated Terms | plastics – symbols and abbreviated terms]]: SBR) are suitable for these applications because they exhibit high damping over a wide temperature range [1].

==Definition of rebound resilience==

The determination of the rebound resilience (''R'') according to DIN 53512 [2] or ISO 4662 [3] allows an evaluation of the damping behaviour of elastomeric materials. Here, a pendulum (Schob pendulum) with a working capacity of 0.5 J strikes the surface of a test [[Specimen | specimen]] vertically at a defined [[Velocity | velocity]]. The rebound resilience is defined by the quotient of the rebound height ''h''R and the height of fall of the pendulum ''h''0 or by the ratio of the energy gained ''E''R to the energy expended ''E''A:

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math> R = \frac{h_R}{h_0} \cdot 100 \ %</math>
|(1)
|}

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math> R = \frac{E_R}{E_A} \ \left ( % \right )</math>
|(2)
|}

The following relationship exists between rebound resilience and loss factor tan ''δ'' for small values of the loss factor [1]:

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math> R = \frac{E_R}{E_A} = 1 - \pi \cdot tan \ \delta</math>
|(3)
|}

The higher the [[Material Value | value]] determined for the [[Material Parameter | parameter]] ''R'', the better the dynamic-mechanical behaviour (see also: [[Dynamic-Mechanical Analysis (DMA) – General Principles|Dynamic-mechanical analysis (DMA)]] – General principles) can be assessed under the test-methodical boundary conditions with regard to the type of [[Stress | stress]] and [[Test Speed | test speed]].

==Application examples==

The '''Figure 1''' shows the relationship between rebound resilience and material composition. The carbon black reinforced SBR vulcanisate shows a higher rebound resilience compared to the vulcanisate with an additional standard plasticiser. If, on the other hand, bio-based plasticisers were mixed in, higher values for rebound resilience were determined in some cases compared to the vulcanised material (see also: [[Vulcanization]]) without plasticisers. The higher the determined [[Material Value | material value]], the more elastic the material.

[[file:Rebound resilience elastomers 1.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Rebound resilience for carbon black reinforced (50 phr) SBR vulcanisates with different plasticisers (15 phr) (own investigations [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_Service_Merseburg Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg (PSM))])
|}

A direct correlation between the rebound resilience and the [[SHORE Hardness | SHORE A hardness]] material values (see Table 1) cannot be established. The highest Shore A hardness value of A 72 was determined for the vulcanisate without plasticiser (SBR/carbon black). However, the highest values for rebound resilience were determined for the vulcanisates with bio-based plasticiser 1, with 54 SHORE A.

'''Table 1:''' SHORE A hardness values for carbon black reinforced (50 phr) SBR vulcanisates with different plasticisers (own studies [https://www.polymerservice-merseburg.de Polymer Service GmbH Merseburg (PSM))])

{| border="1px" style="border-collapse:collapse"
!! style="width:300px; background:#DCDCDC" | Vulcanisate
!! style="width:200px; background:#DCDCDC" | SHORE A (-)

|-
|SBR/carbon black
|style="text-align:center" | 72 ± 0.55
|-
|SBR/carbon black with standard plasticiser
|style="text-align:center" | 60 ± 0.21
|-
|SBR/carbon black with bio-based plasticiser 1
|style="text-align:center" | 54 ± 0.86
|-
|SBR/carbon black with bio-based plasticiser 2
|style="text-align:center" | 55 ± 0.61
|-
|SBR/carbon black with bio-based plasticiser 3
|style="text-align:center" | 56 ± 0.53
|}

The investigations show that elastomers with the same SHORE A hardness values can have very different rebound resilience. Finally, the rebound resilience enables a statement to be made about the hysteresis behaviour (see also: [[Compression Hardness | compression hardness]]) under impact stress, which describes the purely elastic behaviour of a material.

==Correlation of rebound resilience with SHORE A hardness==

From the application example, it becomes clear that it is difficult to conclude the rebound resilience from the SHORE A hardness, which is relatively easy to determine experimentally. Rebound resilience is a structure-sensitive material parameter that depends on the elastomer type, the material formulation (with plasticiser) and the test temperature.

==See also==

*[[Vulcanization]]
*[[Elasticity]]
*[[Ductility Plastics |Ductility plastics]]
*[[SHORE Hardness]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Röthemeyer, F., Sommer, F.: Kautschuk Technologie. Carl Hanser Munich, 2nd revised edition (2006), (ISBN 978-3-446-40480-9)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|DIN 53512 (2000-04): Testing of Rubber – Determination of Rebound Resilience (Schob Pendulum)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|ISO 4662 (2017-06): Rubber, Vulcanized or Thermoplastic Elastomers – Determination of Rebound Resilience
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|Schnetger, J.: Lexikon Kautschuktechnik. Hüthig, 3rd completely revised and expanded edition (2004), (ISBN 978-3-7785-3022-1; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung | AMK-Library]] under K 7)
|}

[[Category:Elastomers]]
[[Category:Deformation]]
[[Category:Impact Tests]]

Colour Penetration Test

2025-12-15T07:02:51Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Farbeindringprüfung von Lasersinterbauteilen}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Colour penetration test of laser sintered components
__FORCETOC__

==The colouring of laser sintered components==

The mass density of a laser sintered component can be used as an indicator of component quality. The [[Density | density]] of a component determined using the buoyancy method can be used to draw conclusions about its mechanical properties. As local disturbances can occur during the construction process, the colouring of the laser sintered parts in a colour liquor is used for location-dependent density testing. The colour pigments diffuse better and faster in layers of lower density than in regions of higher density. As a result, weak points in the component are coloured more intensively ('''Fig. 1''') [1, 2].

[[file:Colour Penetration Test - Laser Sinter Components.jpg|600px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Schematic illustration of the colour saturation in dependence on the density [1,3]
|}

==Determining the colour saturation correlation with the mass density==

The absolute values of colour saturation, which lie between 0 and 255, are determined using a computer-aided graphic evaluation based on the red–green–blue system (short RGB). The absolute colour saturation difference for – in this case – red can be derived from this.

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>\Delta F\,=\,F\left(red\right)\,-\,\left(F\left(blue\right)\,+\,F\left(green\right)\right)\,\cdot\,0{.}5</math>
|}

The relative colour saturation thus results in:

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>\Delta F_{rel}\,=\,\frac{\Delta F}{255}</math>
|}

[[file:Farbeindringprfung_Lasersinterbauteile_Bild 2_korr.jpg|600px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px" |Pictures of ranges of coloured multi-purpose specimen produced of PA12 with different densities: low (a), middle density (b) and high density (c) [1, 3]
|}

To determine the relationship between density and relative colour saturation, [[Multipurpose Test Specimen | multipurpose test specimens]] were produced with different laser sintering parameters on edge to the application direction of the wiper. The density was determined using the buoyancy method. The test specimens were immersed in a red colour liquor at 95 °C for five minutes. After removal, they were rinsed under running water. Photographic images of the test specimen surfaces were then taken using a digital camera after white balancing ('''Fig. 2''') and these images were analysed using Origin image processing software. Furthermore, [[Specimen | test specimens]] of different densities were first coloured and then mechanically separated in order to investigate the depth of colour penetration. This clearly shows that with low-density sintered components, the colour diffuses about 500 µm deep into the component within the specified immersion time ('''Fig. 3a'''). For components made from the optimised material, the ink penetration depth is not even 100 µm ('''Fig. 3b'''), which ultimately also affects the colour intensity [1].

[[file:Farbeindringprüfung_Lasersinterbauteil_Bild 3.JPG]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Bild 3''':
|width="600px" |Lichtmikroskopische Aufnahmen von Querschnittsflächen vorher eingefärbter Prüfkörper mit geringer (a) und hoher (b) Dichte
|}

The values determined for the relative colour saturation are plotted in '''Figure 4''' as a function of the relative mass densities of the test specimens. In '''Figure 4''', a value of ∆''F''rel = 1 was assumed for ∆''F''rel at a relative density of 0.79, the density value for structural integrity.

==Correlation between density, crystallinity and mechanical properties==

As the density (and thus the porosity) and the degree of [[Crystallinity|crystallinity]] (or the amorphous proportion) of laser-sintered parts are interdependent, it is impossible to clearly assign which of the two structural parameters ultimately has the main influence on the [[Material Value |mechanical properties]].

The general rule is:

'''The greater the density ''ρ'' and the lower the crystalline content of laser-sintered components, the better their mechanical properties.'''

[[file:Farbeindringprfung_Lasersinterbauteil_Bild 4.jpg|500px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Bild 4''':
|width="600px" |Relative colour saturation ∆''F''rel in dependence on the relative density ''ρ''/''ρ''0 for PA12
|}

==See also==

*[[Multipurpose Test Specimen | Multipurpose test specimen]]
*Specimen for laser sintering
*Laser sintering

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Grießbach, S.: Korrelation zwischen Materialzusammensetzung, Herstellungsbedingungen und Eigenschaftsprofil von lasergesinterten Polyamid-Werkstoffen. Dissertation, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Verlag Wissenschaftliche Scripten, Auerbach (2012)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|Grießbach, S., [https://researchgate.net/profile/Ralf-Lach Lach, R.], [[Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]]: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0142941810001546?via%3Dihub Structure–property Correlations of Laser Sintered Nylon 12 for Dynamic Dye Testing of Plastic Parts]. Polymer Testing 29 (2010) 1026–1030
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|Grießbach, S., Buschner N., Lach R., [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.]: Einsatz des Diffusionsfärbens zur zerstörungsfreien Bauteilprüfung an Lasersinterteilen. Polymerwerkstoffe (2010) 15.–17. September 2010, Halle, Tagungsband Beitrag PT 10, 1–7
|}

[[Category:Colour and Gloss]]
[[Category:Surface Testing Technology]]

Fatigue Strength

2025-12-15T07:00:34Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Dauerfestigkeit}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Fatigue strength or continuous fatigue strength
__FORCETOC__

==Determination of fatigue strength==

The aim of a [[Vibration Test|vibration test]] or [[Fatigue|fatigue test]] is to determine the vibration strength, or fatigue strength ''σ''D for short. ''σ''D characterises the maximum stress amplitude ''σ''a that a test [[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests|specimen]] can withstand an infinite number of times without unacceptable deformation. At all stress amplitudes above ''σ''D, the test [[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests|specimen]] [[Fracture|breaks]]. Since this destruction of the plastic test specimen occurs in the linear-elastic or [[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour|linear-viscoelastic deformation range]], the term [[Fatigue|fatigue]] is used in this context. The fractures that occur are referred to as fatigue fractures.

Indexing is done with capital letters in order to distinguish between the stress parameters to be set and [[Material Value|characteristic values]] of the fatigue strength. The type of [[Stress|stress]] is indicated by ‘z’ for tension, ‘d’ for compression and ‘b’ for bending.

Example: ''σ''zD... Fatigue strength in the alternating tension range

Frequently used special cases of fatigue strength are:

* Alternating strength ''σ''W = ''σ''a = ''σ''o = |''σ''u| for ''σ''m = 0.
* Threshold strength ''σ''Sch = 2 ''σ''a for ''σ''m = ''σ''a.
* The time-dependent fatigue strength ''σ''(N) characterises the stress amplitudes above ''σ''D at which fatigue fracture of the test specimen occurs.
* ''σ''z(6) means time-dependent strength in the alternating tensile range of 106 load cycles.

N is always the number of cycles or load cycles and ''N''C is the limit number of cycles that is reached without [[Fracture|fracture]] of the test specimen.

==Performing WÖHLER tests==

Fatigue strength is determined using the WÖHLER test. This consists of a series of single-stage vibration tests, i.e. with stress cycles of constant amplitude ''σ''a at a constant mean stress ''σ''m or constant stress ratio ''R''.

The [[Stress|stress]] should be selected so that at least one test specimen breaks at a low number of cycles and another test specimen runs through to the limit number of cycles ''N''C. The selected stress amplitudes ''σ''a are plotted on a double logarithmic scale as a function of the number of cycles ''N'' endured until [[Fracture|fracture]]. Connecting the individual measurement points results in the Wöhler curve ('''Fig. 1'''), which is referred to as the S–N curve.

[[File:Fatigue Strength-1.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Schematic WÖHLER curve (S–N curve) for plastics compared to metallic materials
|}

As expected, the S-N line shows an increase in the number of cycles ''N'' with decreasing stress amplitude. In metallic materials, especially structural steels, the WÖHLER line approaches a horizontal line above a certain number of cycles ''N''D. This stress limit, at which no [[Fracture|fracture]] occurs even after an infinite number of cycles, is the fatigue vibration strength, often referred to simply as fatigue strength ''σ''D. To determine this value in practice, the WÖHLER test must be carried out until a limit number of cycles ''N''G is reached. Values for ''N''G derived from experience are 2•106 for steels and 10 to 50•106 for light metals. For non-metallic materials and metallic materials under corrosive stress, the WÖHLER line (S–N line) continues to decline even at very high fatigue cycles. For [[Plastics|plastics]], a fatigue strength based on 7•107 fatigue cycles is determined. However, fatigue fractures are to be expected here even at higher fatigue cycles.

==Test equipment for fatigue testing==

[[Servo-hydraulic Testing Machine|Servo-hydraulic universal testing machines]] ('''Fig. 2''') can be used to perform dynamic tests at medium frequencies, while pulsators (electrodynamic principle) or cyclic bending machines can be used at high frequencies. These machines must always have closed control loops for force and deformation (see also: tensile test control). When measuring temperature dependence, a temperature control chamber must also be connected.

[[File:Fatigue Strength-2.jpg|300px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px" |[[Servo-hydraulic Testing Machine|Servo-hydraulic testing machine]] MTS 319.25 from [https://www.mts.com/de/products/materials MTS Systems GmbH], Berlin, for performing WÖHLER tests
|}

==See also==

* [[Vibration Test|Vibration test]]
* [[Fatigue]]
* [[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests|Test specimen for fatigue tests]]
* [[Vibration Fracture|Vibration fracture]]
* [[Vibration-induced Creep Fracture|Vibration-induced creep fracture]]

'''Reference'''

* DIN 50100 (2022-12): Load Controlled Fatigue Testing – Execution and Evaluation of Cyclic Tests at Constant Load Amplitudes on Metallic Specimens and Components
* DIN 53442 (1990-09): Flexural Fatigue Testing of Plastics using Flat Specimens
* ISO 3385 (2014-07): Flexible Cellular Polymeric Materials – Determination of Fatigue by Constant-load Pounding

[[Category:Fatigue]]

Fatigue Strength

2025-12-15T06:59:01Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=de|ARTIKEL=Dauerfestigkeit}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Fatigue strength or continuous fatigue strength
__FORCETOC__

==Determination of fatigue strength==

The aim of a [[Vibration Test|vibration test]] or [[Fatigue|fatigue test]] is to determine the vibration strength, or fatigue strength ''σ''D for short. ''σ''D characterises the maximum stress amplitude ''σ''a that a test [[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests|specimen]] can withstand an infinite number of times without unacceptable deformation. At all stress amplitudes above ''σ''D, the test [[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests|specimen]] [[Fracture|breaks]]. Since this destruction of the plastic test specimen occurs in the linear-elastic or [[Linear-viscoelastic Behaviour|linear-viscoelastic deformation range]], the term [[Fatigue|fatigue]] is used in this context. The fractures that occur are referred to as fatigue fractures.

Indexing is done with capital letters in order to distinguish between the stress parameters to be set and [[Material Value|characteristic values]] of the fatigue strength. The type of [[Stress|stress]] is indicated by ‘z’ for tension, ‘d’ for compression and ‘b’ for bending.

Example: ''σ''zD... Fatigue strength in the alternating tension range

Frequently used special cases of fatigue strength are:

* Alternating strength ''σ''W = ''σ''a = ''σ''o = |''σ''u| for ''σ''m = 0.
* Threshold strength ''σ''Sch = 2 ''σ''a for ''σ''m = ''σ''a.
* The time-dependent fatigue strength ''σ''(N) characterises the stress amplitudes above ''σ''D at which fatigue fracture of the test specimen occurs.
* ''σ''z(6) means time-dependent strength in the alternating tensile range of 106 load cycles.

N is always the number of cycles or load cycles and ''N''C is the limit number of cycles that is reached without [[Fracture|fracture]] of the test specimen.

==Performing WÖHLER tests==

Fatigue strength is determined using the WÖHLER test. This consists of a series of single-stage vibration tests, i.e. with stress cycles of constant amplitude ''σ''a at a constant mean stress ''σ''m or constant stress ratio ''R''.

The [[Stress|stress]] should be selected so that at least one test specimen breaks at a low number of cycles and another test specimen runs through to the limit number of cycles ''N''C. The selected stress amplitudes ''σ''a are plotted on a double logarithmic scale as a function of the number of cycles ''N'' endured until [[Fracture|fracture]]. Connecting the individual measurement points results in the Wöhler curve ('''Fig. 1'''), which is referred to as the S–N curve.

[[File:Fatigue Strength-1.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Schematic WÖHLER curve (S–N curve) for plastics compared to metallic materials
|}

As expected, the S-N line shows an increase in the number of cycles ''N'' with decreasing stress amplitude. In metallic materials, especially structural steels, the WÖHLER line approaches a horizontal line above a certain number of cycles ''N''D. This stress limit, at which no [[Fracture|fracture]] occurs even after an infinite number of cycles, is the fatigue vibration strength, often referred to simply as fatigue strength ''σ''D. To determine this value in practice, the WÖHLER test must be carried out until a limit number of cycles ''N''G is reached. Values for ''N''G derived from experience are 2•106 for steels and 10 to 50•106 for light metals. For non-metallic materials and metallic materials under corrosive stress, the WÖHLER line (S–N line) continues to decline even at very high fatigue cycles. For [[Plastics|plastics]], a fatigue strength based on 7•107 fatigue cycles is determined. However, fatigue fractures are to be expected here even at higher fatigue cycles.

==Test equipment for fatigue testing==

[[Servo-hydraulic Testing Machine|Servo-hydraulic universal testing machines]] ('''Fig. 2''') can be used to perform dynamic tests at medium frequencies, while pulsators (electrodynamic principle) or cyclic bending machines can be used at high frequencies. These machines must always have closed control loops for force and deformation (see also: tensile test control). When measuring temperature dependence, a temperature control chamber must also be connected.

[[File:Fatigue Strength-2.jpg|300px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px" |[[Servo-hydraulic Testing Machine|Servo-hydraulic testing machine]] MTS 319.25 from [https://www.mts.com/de/products/materials MTS Systems GmbH], Berlin, for performing WÖHLER tests
|}

==See also==

* [[Vibration Test|Vibration test]]
* [[Fatigue]]
* [[Test Specimen for Fatigue Tests|Test specimen for fatigue tests]]
* [[Vibration Fracture|Vibration fracture]]
* [[Vibration-induced Creep Fracture|Vibration-induced creep fracture]]

'''Reference'''

* DIN 50100 (2022-12): Load Controlled Fatigue Testing – Execution and Evaluation of Cyclic Tests at Constant Load Amplitudes on Metallic Specimens and Components
* DIN 53442 (1990-09): Flexural Fatigue Testing of Plastics using Flat Specimens
* ISO 3385 (2014-07): Flexible Cellular Polymeric Materials – Determination of Fatigue by Constant-load Pounding

[[Category:Fatigue]]

File:Trouserprobe.jpg

2025-12-15T06:58:21Z

Oluschinski:

AMK-Büchersammlung

2025-12-15T06:56:27Z

Oluschinski:

You can find a current list of all works of the AMK-Library here:

*[http://amk-merseburg.de/buechersammlung/ www.amk-merseburg.de]

AMK-Büchersammlung

2025-12-15T06:53:32Z

Oluschinski: Created page with "see [http://amk-merseburg.de/buechersammlung/ www.amk-merseburg.de]"

see [http://amk-merseburg.de/buechersammlung/ www.amk-merseburg.de]

File:Stress Load.jpg

2025-12-15T06:50:13Z

Oluschinski: Oluschinski uploaded a new version of File:Stress Load.jpg

File:Abrasion-1.jpg

2025-12-15T06:47:00Z

Oluschinski:

Abrasion Elastomers

2025-12-15T06:46:28Z

Oluschinski:

{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Abrieb Elastomere}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Abrasion elastomers
__FORCETOC__
==General==

Abrasion is the loss of material on the [[Surface|surface]] of test [[Specimen|specimens]] or [[Fracture Behaviour of Plastics Components|components]] due to abrasive mechanical [[Stress|stress]], which occurs when surfaces act on each other. The wear behaviour of [[Elastomers|elastomers]] is influenced not only by the molecular structure of the elastomer but also by the composition of the compound and the type of [[Stress | stress]]. The chemical composition of the elastomer also determines the [[Glass Transition Tomperature|glass transition temperature]] ''T''g and the hysteresis properties, i.e. the [[Viscoelastic Material Behaviour|viscoelastic properties]]. Elastomers or rubber compounds with low ''T''g, combined with low hysteresis, tend to have lower abrasion resistance. Fillers, additives and the type of crosslinking also influence abrasion behaviour. For example, active fillers such as carbon black and silica reduce abrasion. The type of load on the elastomer component, the temperature and the condition of the contact surface also play a significant role in evaluating the wear properties. If the component is subjected to the impact of sharp-edged particles, as occurs when conveying granules, blasting material or bulk material (see also: [[Bulk Density|density]]), the wear behaviour differs significantly from that resulting from dynamic loading, such as a tire.

==Borderline cases of wear==

Since wear occurs as a result of frictional contact between two friction partners, the wear behaviour of [[Elastomers|elastomers]] depends not only on the material properties, but also on the interactions that occur and the magnitudes of the stress collective. Friction and wear are therefore system properties and not purely material properties.

Four limiting cases are defined for the wear of elastomers:

*Abrasive wear (wear caused by flowing sharp particles, e.g. on a carrier belt or tire on a rough road or "full braking"),
*Adhesive wear (wear caused by rubbing or sliding pushing particles, e.g. tires on a flat road),
*Deformational wear (wear due to [[Fatigue|fatigue]], as a result of [[Shear Modulus|shear]], [[Compression Test|compression]], [[Tensile Test|tension]], [[Bend Test|bending]]),
*Tribochemical wear (degradation due to frictional heat).

In practice, several mechanisms are usually involved in the wear process at the same time, but in different proportions. Both the processes that occur in a material during abrasive stress and the quantitative characterization of the abrasion properties are to be regarded as very complex. Thus, abrasion as a deformation-mechanical process is associated with [[Crack Resistance Curve – Experimental Methods| crack resistance]], [[Crack Propagation | crack growth]] and [[Fatigue | fatigue]]. Elastomers primarily exhibit the mechanisms of abrasion and fatigue wear.

==Method of DIN abrasion==

The characterization of the abrasion properties of [[Elastomers|elastomers]] can be carried out with the aid of a wide variety of different test methods. The simplest method for determining abrasive wear is the so-called DIN abrasion according to DIN 53516 (withdrawn) or DIN ISO 4649. According to DIN ISO 4649, the method for determining abrasion is divided into two procedures. Method A works with non-rotating test specimens and in method B the abrasion is determined on rotating test specimens. According to DIN 53516 (withdrawn), only stationary test specimens are used. The procedure, the specimen geometry and the determination of the abrasion are the same for both standards. The test specimen made of the elastomer to be tested is guided under a constant contact force and at a constant [[Velocity | velocity]] (40 min-1) over a fixed friction distance (40 m) over a test emery board located on a rotating cylinder ('''Fig. 1''').

==Characterization of abrasion with parameters==

The abrasion according to DIN 53516 (withdrawn) (see Eq. 1) is then determined by determining the loss of mass of the test specimen, taking into account the attack sharpness and nominal attack sharpness of the test abrasive sheet and with the aid of the [[Density | density]].

[[file:Abrasion-1.jpg|500px]] 
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="700px" |Abrader type [https://www.zwick.de/ Zwick] 6103 for tests according to ISO 4549 or ASTM D 5963
|}

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px"|<math>A=\frac{\Delta m\cdot S_{0}}{\rho \cdot S}</math>
|(1)
|}

with:

{|
|-
|width="60px"|A
|Abrasion in mm3
|-
|width="60px"|<math>\Delta</math>m
|Mass loss in mg
|-
|width="60px"|''ϱ''
|[[Density]] in g cm-3
|-
|width="60px"|''S''0
|Target impact sharpness (200 mg)
|-
|width="60px"|''S''
|Sharpness of impact in mg
|}

According to DIN ISO 4649, the relative volume loss (see Eq. 2) and the abrasion resistance (see Eq. 3) are determined as follows:

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px"|<math>\Delta V_{rel}=\frac{\Delta m_{t}\cdot \Delta m_{const}}{\rho_{t} \cdot \Delta m_{r}}</math>
|(2)
|}

with:

{|
|-
|width="60px"|Δ''m''t
|Mass loss of the tested [[Elastomers|elastomer]] in mg
|-
|width="60px"|Δ''m''const
|Defined mass loss of the reference elastomer in mg
|-
|width="60px"|''ϱ''t
|Density of the tested elastomer in mg/mm3
|-
|width="60px"|Δ''m''r
|Mass loss of the reference elastomer in mg
|}

and:

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px"|<math>I_{AR}=\frac{\Delta m_{r} \cdot \rho_{t}}{\Delta m_{t} \cdot \rho_{r}}</math>
|(3)
|}

with:

{|
|-
|width="60px"|Δ''m''t
|Mass loss of the tested elastomer in mg
|-
|width="60px"|Δ''m''r
|Mass loss of the reference elastomer in mg
|-
|width="60px"|''ϱ''t
|Density of the tested elastomer in mg/mm3
|-
|width="60px"|''ϱ''r
|Density of the reference elastomer in mg/mm3
|}

The methods for determining abrasion can be subdivided as follows:
*Simple indentation methods with hard bodies (e.g. pico-abrasion according to ASTM D 2228)
*Simulation methods of practical application with the closest possible approximation to real conditions (e.g. DIN abrasion, LAT 100 (according to Grosch), Akron Abrader)
*Test equipment that reflects the variation of load, [[Velocity|speed]] and temperature (e.g. LAT 100 (according to Grosch), Akron Abrader, flat track tire test rig (Fa. iABG), drum test rig)
*Testing under real conditions (e.g. tire test)

In order to evaluate the wear properties of tread compounds, the DIN abrasion test is the preferred method in the tire industry, since sample preparation and test performance are simple and the time required is low compared to methods under real conditions.

==See also==

*[[Ageing Elastomers | Ageing elastomers]]
*[[Surface Testing Technology|Surface testing technology]]
*[[Scratch Resistance|Scratch resistance]]
*[[SHORE Hardness – Material Development Elastomers|SHORE Hardness – Material development elastomers]]

'''References'''

*Röthemeyer, F., Sommer, F.: Kautschuktechnologie. Carl Hanser Munich Vienna (2001), pp. 518–520 (ISBN 978-3-4461-6169-6)
*Scholz, K.-G.: Elastomere in tribologischen Systemen. Expert Verlag (2011) (ISBN 978-3-8169-2911-6)
*[https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_Friedrich_(Werkstoffwissenschaftler) Friedrich, K.]: Friction and Wear. In: [[Grellmann, Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler, Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Munich (2022) 3rd Edition, pp. 198–214 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 22)
*[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gert_Heinrich Heinrich, G.], Cäsar, T.: Crack initiation, wear and molecular structure of filled vulcanized materials: In: [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Grellmann Grellmann, W.], [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabine_Seidler Seidler, S.]: Deformation and Fracture Behaviour of Polymers. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York (2001) 479–492 (ISBN 3-540-41247-6; see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 7)
*DIN 53516 (1987-06): Testing of Rubber and Elastomers – Determination of Abrasion Resistance (withdrawn; replaced by DIN ISO 4649)
*DIN ISO 4649 (2021-06): Rubber, Vulcanized or Thermoplastics – Determination Abrasion Resistance Using a Rotating Cylindrical Drum Device (ISO 4649:2017-09)
*ASTM D 2228 (2004; reapproved 2019): Standard Test of Rubber Property – Relative Abrasion Resistance by the Pico Abrader Method
*ASTM D 5963 (2022): Standard Test of Rubber Property – Abrasion Resistance (Rotary Drum Abrader)
*[[Reincke, Katrin|Reincke, K.]], Grellmann, W., Ilisch, S., Thiele, S., Ferner, U.: Structure – Properties Correlations of SSBR/BR Blends. In: Grellmann, W., Langer, B.: Deformation and Fracture Behaviour of Polymer Materials. Springer Series in Materials Science 247, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (2017) pp. 398–408 (ISBN 978-3-319-41879-7, see [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] under A 19)

[[category:Elastomers]]
[[category: Surface Testing Technology]]

File:Adhesive Joints 2.jpg

2025-12-15T06:45:44Z

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Adhesive Joints – Determination of Characteristic Values

2025-12-15T06:44:36Z

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{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Klebverbindungen – Kennwertermittlung}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Adhesive joints ‒ Determination of characteristic values (Author: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stephan Marzi)
__FORCETOC__

==Determination of fracture mechanics values on DCB-specimens for adhesive joints==

As shown in '''Figure 1''', the [[DCB-Specimen|DCB-specimen]] is preferably used to determine the (critical) [[Energy Release Rate|energy release rate]] ''G''Ic in Mode I. However, there is also work in which DCB-specimens are used in Mode III [1] or in Mixed-Mode I+III [2, 3].

The [[DCB-Specimen|DCB-specimen]] consists of two beam-shaped joining parts (or substrates), which are only allowed to deform linearly and elastically during the test and are joined with the adhesive to be tested. In contrast to the evaluation methods mentioned above, which are based on singular stress fields at the crack tip and the associated concept of [[Fracture Mechanics|stress intensity factors]], methods based on beam theory are usually used in the case of adhesive joints. Further details are regulated in ISO 25217 [4].

[[file:Adhesive Joints 1.jpg|500px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Sketch and nomenclature of a DCB test on adhesive joints (left) and replacement model (right)
|}

The beam theory methods are based on the IRWIN-KIES equation,

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>G_{Ic} = \frac{P^2}{2B}\frac{dC}{da}</math>
|(1)
|}

with the specimen compliance ''C'' = ''δ''/''P'' and the current crack length ''a'', and are thus based on the linear-elastic BERNOULLIAN beam theory. In particular, the IRWIN-KIES equation also implies that

* the force–displacement (''P''‒''δ'') curve is linear and runs through the origin in the case of unloading,
* the adhesive behaves infinitely stiff and ideally brittle,
* the crack length ''a'' is large enough (''a''/''h'' > 10) to be able to use the substitute model of two cantilever beams of length ''a'', and
* the two cantilever beams can be regarded as firmly clamped at the current crack position.

==Simple Beam Theory (SBT)==

Simple Beam Theory (SBT) assumes that the above conditions are all fulfilled. In this case, the IRWIN-KIES equation is reduced to

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>G_{Ic} = \frac{4P^2}{E_S H^2}\left( \frac{3a^2}{h^3}+\frac{1}{h}\right)</math>
|(2)
|}

Here, ''B'', ''h'' and ''E''S are the width, height and [[Elastic Modulus | modulus of elasticity]] of a joining part. In reality, adhesives are significantly softer and more flexible than the substrates and therefore cannot be considered infinitely stiff. Consequently, there is usually no fixed restraint at the position of the crack tip and Eq. (2) underestimates the energy release rate.

==Corrected Beam Theory (CBT)==

To determine correct [[Energy Release Rate | energy release rates]], ISO 25217 [4] recommends the use of a modified form of Eq. (2), in which the crack length ''a'' is corrected by a restraint correction length Δ,

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>G_{Ic} = \frac{4P^2}{E_S H^2}\left( \frac{3(a + \Delta)^2}{h^3}+\frac{1}{h}\right)</math>,
|(3)
|}

in order to take account of the compliance of the restraint in the equivalent model. The correction length ∆ can be determined experimentally via a compliance calibration and follows directly from a linear regression between ''C''1/3 and ''a'', as '''Fig. 2''' (left) illustrates.

[[file:Adhesive Joints 2.jpg|750px]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px" | Compliance calibration: CBT (left) and ECM (right)
|}

==Experimental Compliance Method (ECM)==

As an alternative to the corrected beam theory (CBT), the experimental compliance method (ECM) can also be used, which was proposed by Berry [5] in 1963 and is also known as BERRY's method. While the CBT calibrates the beam model by adjusting the cantilever length and thus remains physically descriptive, the ECM is based on a calibration of the order ''n'', with which the compliance ''C'' depends on the crack length ''a'', ''C'' ∞ ''a''n. The IRWIN-KIES equation then takes the form on

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>G_{Ic} = \frac{nP\delta}{2Ba}</math>
|(4)
|}

The exponent n can be determined in a similar way to the correction length Δ (CBT) via a compliance calibration and results from the slope of a linear regression between log (''a'') and log (''C''), as illustrated in '''Fig. 2''' (right).

==Evaluation via rotation measurement (J-integral)==

The evaluation of the [[Energy Release Rate | energy release rate]] ''G''Ic on the basis of equations (2), (3) and (4) requires a determination of the current crack length in the experiment. This usually requires increased effort in the measurement setup and is often subject to subjective evaluations and inaccuracies (e.g. in the visual analysis of image recordings). If the rotation ''Θ'' = 3''δ''/4''a'' of the load application point is selected as the degree of deformation of the test [[Specimen | specimen]], then the IRWIN-KIES equation is simplified to

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>G_{Ic} = \frac{2P\theta}{B}</math>
|(5)
|}

and only depends on the load ''P'' and the rotation ''Θ'' of the load application points. Although this procedure requires additional sensors to measure the rotation, compliance calibration is no longer necessary and the energy release rate can be calculated directly from the measured variables ''P'' and ''Θ''. The [[Energy Release Rate | energy release rate]], if calculated according to Eq. (5), is usually referred to as ''J''Ic , as Eq. (5) can also be found in an alternative way and then corresponds to the [[J-Integral Concept| J-integral]] according to Rice [6].

Since this evaluation method does not require knowledge of the crack position and the bending stiffness, (''G''Ic) can also be used as a controlled variable, provided that the controller of the [[Material Testing Machine | testing machine]] technically permits this [7]. If no rotation measurement is possible, such a control can be achieved by using the equation

{|
|-
|width="20px"|
|width="500px" | <math>G_{Ic} = \left(\frac{3}{2}\right)^\frac{2}{3}\frac{P^\frac{4}{3}\delta^\frac{2}{3}}{(EI)^\frac{1}{3}B}</math>,
|(6)
|}

however, the bending stiffness ''EI'' must then be known from analytical estimates or calibration tests.

==See also==

* [[DCB-Specimen | DCB-specimen]]
* [[Fracture Mechanics | Fracture mechanics]]
* [[J-Integral Concept | J-integral concept]]

'''References'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|Loh, L., Marzi, S.: An out-of-plane loaded double cantilever beam (ODCB) test to measure the critical energy release rate in mode III of adhesive joints. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 83 (2018) 24–30, special issue on joint design, DOI: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S014374961830054X 10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2018.02.021]
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|Loh, L., Marzi, S.: Mixed-mode I+III tests on hyperelastic adhesive joints at prescribed mode-mixity. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 85 (2018) 113–122, DOI: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143749618301519 10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2018.05.024]
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|Loh, L., Marzi, S.: A mixed-mode controlled DCB test on adhesive joints loaded in a combination of modes I and III. Procedia Structural Integrity 13 (2018) 1318–1323, ECF22 ‒ Loading and Environmental effects on Structural Integrity, DOI: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452321618305158 10.1016/j.prostr.2018.12.277]
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|ISO 25217 (2009-5): Adhesives – Determination of the Mode I Adhesive Fracture Energy of Structural Adhesive Joints using Double Cantilever Beam and Tapered Double Cantilever Beam Specimens
|-valign="top"
|[5]
|Berry, J. P.: Determination of fracture surface energies by the cleavage technique. Journal of Applied Physics 34 (1963) 1, 62–68, DOI: [https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jap/article-abstract/34/1/62/163753/Determination-of-Fracture-Surface-Energies-by-the?redirectedFrom=fulltext 10.1063/1.1729091]
|-valign="top"
|[6]
|Rice, J. R.: A path independent integral and the approximate analysis of strain concentration by notches and cracks. Journal of Applied Mechanics 35 (1968) 2, 379–386, DOI: [https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/appliedmechanics/article-abstract/35/2/379/392117/A-Path-Independent-Integral-and-the-Approximate?redirectedFrom=fulltext 10.1115/1.3601206]
|-valign="top"
|[7]
|Schrader, P., Schmandt, C., Marzi, S.: Mode I creep fracture of rubber-like adhesive joints at constant crack driving force. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 113 (2022) 103079, DOI: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143749621002827 10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2021.103079]
|}

[[category:Fracture Mechanics | Fracture mechanics]]
[[category:Damage Analysis_Component Failure | Damage analysis/Component failure]]
[[category:Guest Contributions]]

File:Bend Test Specimen Preparation5.jpg

2025-12-15T06:43:40Z

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File:Biegeversuchpkentnahme4.jpg

2025-12-15T06:43:22Z

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Bend Test – Specimen Preparation

2025-12-15T06:41:28Z

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{{Language_sel|LANG=ger|ARTIKEL=Biegeversuch Prüfkörperentnahme}}
{{PSM_Infobox}}
Bend test – Specimen preparation
__FORCETOC__

==Specimen shapes for bend testing==

For the three-point bend test on plastics, in accordance with the relevant standards of [[Bend Test | bend testing]] of plastics [1–3], the test [[Specimen | specimen]] with dimensions 80 mm x 10 mm x 4 mm is preferably used. This test specimen can be manufactured directly by injection moulding or from the [[Multipurpose Test Specimen | multipurpose test specimen]] type 1A by cutting off the plane-parallel part ('''Fig. 1'''). The advantage of this type of specimen production is the comparability of the internal condition of the specimens with respect to residual stress and orientations.

[[file:Bend Test Specimen Preparation1.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 1''':
|width="600px" |Preparation of specimen for the bend test from multi-purpose specimen type 1A
|}

==Specimen shapes for bend testing==

The test specimens used must not have any rounded corners or edges or [[Sink Mark | sink marks]] due to impermissibly high volume shrinkage. The presence of cracks, burrs or scratches as well as strong tendency to demould test specimen in injection moulding can cause additional problems that falsify the measurement results. In addition, the test specimens should not exhibit any torsion and must have surfaces that are perpendicular and plane-parallel to one another. According to the mostly used standard ISO 178 [3], the nominal thickness should be in the interval of 3 to 5 mm, preferably 4 mm, and then the test specimen width should be 10 mm. In the case of deviating specimen thicknesses, the specimen width must then be adjusted accordingly [3].

In principle, it is also possible to produce the required test specimens by sawing and milling from extruded or calendered sheets, in which case the sheet thickness influences the geometry of the test specimens. In this case, the width ''b'' must also be adapted to the nominal thickness of the sheet. As a result, widths of up to 50 mm are technically possible. If filled materials with coarse fillers with regard to geometry are to be characterized, then width and thickness must also be varied to avoid impermissibly high stress peaks. Since such specimens, which are made from plates, usually have a high degree of anisotropy, in this case specimen removal must be carried out in the two main directions (longitudinal = L and transverse = W), with the test direction (perpendicular = N and parallel = P) also being variable ('''Fig. 2''').

[[file:Bend Test Specimen Preparation2.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 2''':
|width="600px" |Production of specimen for bend test from anisotrope plates
|}

==Test specimens for long fiber reinforced thermoset materials==

Particular problems arise when specimens are taken from long-fibre-reinforced, layered anisotropic thermoset-based plastics (laminates). Since only normal stress components in the longitudinal direction of the test [[Specimen | specimen]] are taken into account in the standard-compliant evaluation of the [[Bend Test | bending test]], premature failure occurs under identical test conditions as with the short-fibre-reinforced materials. The cause is the occurrence of interlaminar shear fractures with large-area delaminations caused by the transverse force shear component. To minimize the [[Bend Test – Shear Stress | shear stress]] component, the ratio of support length ''L'' to test specimen thickness ''h'' is increased from normally 16 to 20 to 25 for such materials.

To characterize the properties in the longitudinal and transverse directions, the test specimens must also be taken in both main orientation directions ('''Fig. 3'''), with the specimen length being based on the specimen thickness and the required [[Support Distance | support span]] ratio. Since the position of the specimens in relation to the main orientation direction has a decisive influence on the characteristic [[Material Value | material value]] level, the prismatic specimens must be prepared from the laminated sheets as shown in '''Figure 3'''. In this case, the removal direction of the specimens must be clearly marked with respect to the processing or orientation direction [4].

[[file:Bend Test Specimen Preparation3.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 3''':
|width="600px" |Position of specimen for the bend test at anisotrope materials (laminates)
|}

==Bending test specimen made of plastic components==

When removing test specimens from plastic components, e.g. for a failure analysis, standardized test specimens with the dimensions 80 mm x 10 mm x specimen thickness in mm should also be removed, if possible. In this case, particular attention must be noted to the direction of removal with respect to the component geometry and the direction of injection, and the test specimens must be clearly marked ('''Fig. 4'''). As a rule, transversely curved test specimens, e.g. taken from pipe segments, should not be used or, if they have the same geometry, should only be evaluated from a comparative point of view, since only a point contact on the support can be realized here.

[[file:biegeversuchpkentnahme4.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 4''':
|width="600px" |Removal of specimen for the bend test from plastic components
|}

Slight longitudinal curvatures of the test specimens are acceptable, since these can be taken into account in the calculation equations for the peripheral fibre strain and the flexural strength ('''Fig. 5''').

[[file:Bend Test Specimen Preparation5.jpg]]
{|
|- valign="top"
|width="50px"|'''Fig. 5''':
|width="600px" |Curved test specimen for the bend test from plastic components
|}

==See also==

*[[Bend Test | Bend test]]
*[[Bend Test – Test Influences | Bend test – Test influences]]
*[[Bend Test – Shear Stress | Bend test – Shear stress]]
*[[Bend Loading | Bend loading]]
*[[Bend Test – Specimen Shapes | Bend test – Specimen shapes]]
*[[Bend Test – Yield Stress | Bend test – Yield stress]]

'''Referencex'''

{|
|-valign="top"
|[1]
|[[Bierögel,_Christian|Bierögel, C.]]: Bend Test on Polymers. In: [[Grellmann,_Wolfgang|Grellmann, W.]], [[Seidler,_Sabine|Seidler, S.]] (Eds.): Polymer Testing. Carl Hanser Munich (2022) 3. Edition, 133–143 (ISBN 978-1-56990-806-8; see under [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] A 22)
|-valign="top"
|[2]
|Bierögel, C., [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wolfgang-Grellmann Grellmann, W.]: Bend Loading. In: [https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Grellmann Grellmann, W.], [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sabine-Seidler Sabine Seidler] (Eds.): Mechanical and Thermomechanical Properties of Polymers. Landolt-Börnstein, Volume VIII/6A3, Springer Berlin (2014) 164–191, (ISBN 978-3-642-55165-9; see under [[AMK-Büchersammlung|AMK-Library]] A 16)
|-valign="top"
|[3]
|ISO 178 (2019-04): Plastics – Determination of Flexural Properties
|-valign="top"
|[4]
|ISO 14125 (1998-03): Fibre-reinforced Plastic Composites – Determination of Flexural Properties, Technical Corrigendum Cor.1:2001-07 and Amd.1:2011-02
|}

[[Category:Bend Test]]

File:Extended-Stop-Block-Method 2.jpg

2025-12-15T06:40:40Z

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File:Fibre Composite-3.jpg

2025-12-15T06:39:01Z

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